Liberalism Flashcards
(145 cards)
1
Q
What are the roots of liberalism?
A
- The Reformation ( religious movement in Europe in the 15th-16th century.)
- Led by Martin Luther - argues that christianity should take a more individualistic form.
- Furthered by the enlightenment - defined by reason and free thinking.
- pushed by figures such as John Locke.
2
Q
What radical ideas did the Enlightenment inspire?
A
- Every individual has the ability to think freely.
- An individuals life to be determined by their own judgment.
- The relationship between the individual and the government should be re-examined.
3
Q
What ideas were prevalent before the enlightenment?
A
- The natural form of government is autocratic.
- autocratic ruler has been appointed by God.
- ‘the divine right of kings’.
4
Q
What is the Mechanistic Theory?
A
- Linked to the writings of Locke.
- Argues that human beings are rational and can build a state that reflects their needs.
- Rejects the idea of the ‘divine right of kings’.
5
Q
Key works by John Locke:
A
- Two treaties of government (1960)
- regarded as the cornerstone of liberal thought.
6
Q
Why is John Locke important to liberalism?
A
- Seen as the father of liberalism.
- Classical liberal.
- Locke’s important because of the questions he raised about human nature and the state.
7
Q
Why did Locke deny traditional and medieval principles?
A
- Locke rejects that the state was part of God’s creation.
- Disagrees with the ‘divine right of kings’.
- Argues that a legitimate state would be created by mankind to serve mankind’s interests.
- Government by consent.
8
Q
What was Locke’s view of the state of nature?
A
- Goes against Hobbes state of nature that is ‘nasty brutish and short’.
- Argues that before the state there was a natural society that served mankind’s interests well.
- The state of law should only ever improve on the state of nature.
9
Q
What was Locke’s view on the ‘state of law’?
A
- ‘State of law’ would only be legitimate if it respected natural rights and laws.
- Locke’s ideal state is also based on the ‘social contract theory’ - people have voluntarily consented to accept the state’s rulings.
10
Q
What was Locke’s view of limited government?
A
- Government governing within pre-agreed rules and always requiring constant consent.
- The state’s limited character would be agreed by the dispersal of powers.
11
Q
State of nature:
A
A notion of what life was like before the emergence of the state.
Used by Locke ( and Hobbes before him) to justify the different types of state they were proposing and why such states would be an improvement on the state of nature.
12
Q
Limited Government:
A
Relates to Locke’s assertion that the state should be limited in terms of what it can do - by a formal constitution typically.
13
Q
Egotistical individualism:
A
Reflects the liberal belief that human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish rights.
Its defenders claim that because human beings are rational, egotistical individualism doesn’t necessarily lead to conflict.
14
Q
What are the differing views on human nature?
A
- Egotistical
- Rational
- Progressive.
- Optimistic
15
Q
What is the egotistical view on human nature?
A
- Liberals from Locke onwards have argued that human beings are endowed with ‘natural rights’.
- Also believe that human beings are driven by egotistical individualism.
Liberals argue that we all seek: - Self-realisation, self-determination, self-fulfilment.
16
Q
How are feminist liberals impacted by the egotistical view on human nature?
A
- Mary Wolstencroft and Betty Friedan.
- Both argue that male and female individuals share a desire for self-fulfilment and self-determination.
17
Q
What did Friedan write in The Feminine Mystique on human nature?
A
- States that women were ‘quietly suppressed’ by ‘gender expectations’.
- Specifically referred to women in a suburban environment that were ‘trapped by an obligation to surrender their own dreams in order that husbands and children can follow theirs.’
- linked suicide rates and female depression to women being unfilled in their positions as housewives.
18
Q
Who developed the ideas of John Locke in the 18th century?
A
Mary Wollstonecraft.
19
Q
Important work from Mary Wollstonecraft?
A
- A Vindication of the Rights of Women. (1792)
20
Q
What was Wollstonecrafts views on human nature?
A
- Agrees with the Enlightenments positive view on human nature.
- Felt that the belief that human beings are guided by reason should be applied to both men and women.
- She argued that 18th century society did not think women were rational and therefore deprived them of individual freedom.
21
Q
What were Wollstonecrafts views on the revolutions between 1759 and 97?
A
- Welcomed both the French and the American Revolution.
- Her Vindication of the Rights of Men - attacks Burkes critique on the French Revolution and his defence of aristocratic rule.
- Wollstonecraft supported republican governments and formal equality - as long as it applied to all individuals - not just men.
- Applauded French revolutions focus on citizens.
22
Q
How did Wollstonecraft hope to achieve her feminist version of liberalism?
A
- Through educating women so that they could develop their rational faculties and realise their individual potential.
- also to recognise the absurdity of the divine right of kings.
23
Q
Which liberals believe in the rational approach to human nature?
A
- John Stuart Mill
- Locke.
24
Q
What is the rational view of human nature?
A
- Supported by Locke and Mill.
- Argues that whilst we may be egotistical we are also rational and guided by reason and logic rather than emotion.
- Our rationality leads to the realisation that selfishness can lead to disadvantage.
- liberals see human nature as fundamentally self-centred, but also drawn to intelligent compromises and mutual understanding with others.
25
What is the progressive view of human nature?
- Most liberal thinkers believe that human nature is constantly changing and progressing as we become more rational and intelligent.
- Called developmental individualism.
- Links to the doctrine of utilitarianism - a philosophy promoted by philosopher Jeremy Bentham.
26
Developmental Individualism:
- Relates to the liberal philosophy of John Stuart Mill who focuses on what individuals could become.
- Helps to explain Mill's strong influence on the role of education in a liberal society.
27
What is the optimistic view of human nature?
- Liberals are optimistic about the human condition and reject original sin.
(suggestion that humanity is innately flawed).
- Liberals from Locke onwards hold a positive view of human nature with the belief that humanity has the ability to affect steady progress and increase human happiness.
28
Evidence of an optimistic view of human nature in liberal politics:
The slogan "Yes, we can." underpinning Barack Obama's presidential campaign in 2008.
29
What are the differing liberal views on society?
- The 'natural' society.
- The individualistic society.
- The tolerant society.
30
Which liberal thinkers support the idea of the 'natural society'?
Rawls and Locke.
31
What is the natural view of society?
- Rawls defines society as the peaceful, voluntary action of multiple individuals.
- liberals from Locke argue that society was not dependent on the state.
- liberals argue that society predates the state, hence Lockes reference to the 'natural society' and peaceful 'state of nature'.
- liberals argue that pre-state life was largely agreeable and not something we would have automatically wished to end.
32
Which liberal thinkers support the view of the individualistic society?
- Mill
- Wollstonecraft
- Friedan
33
What is the individualistic view of society?
- Consistent with the 'egotistical' view of human nature .
- State that a 'legitimate' is society is one where the maximum number of people can achieve self0realisation and self-determination.
- One were people are free from the barriers of prejudice and discrimination.
- liberals are also concerned with the minority and underrepresented groups.
34
What was Mill's view of the individualistic society?
- Mill states in the 19th century that the main role of politicians was to create the conditions for an individualistic society.
35
What was Wollstonecraft's view on the individualistic society?
- 18th century.
- Claims that 'natural rights' applied to both men and women and noted that rights such as the right to property were withheld from women in 18th century England.
36
What was Friedans view on the individualistic society?
- Asserts that the patriarchal, male dominated society conflicted with women's quest for self-determination and was therefore at odds with liberal individualism.
37
Evidence of liberal thinkers being concerned with minority groups or those with underrepresented characteristics?
- Cause of non-conformists championed by Locke in 17th century England.
- Women in 18th century England aspiring for education and property were championed by Wollstonecraft.
- Friedan backed women seeking professional careers in 1960s America.
- LGBTQ+ rights more recently have been supported by liberals like Shon Faye,
38
What is the liberal view of the tolerant society?
- Links to John Stuart Mill - argues that a liberal society should tolerate all actions and opinions unless they were shown to violate the harm principle.
- Mill believes that education is crucial to the liberal project - providing the means through which the interest of society's minorities can be reconciled.
39
What is the 'harm principle'?
- Notion expressed by Mill that views and action we dislike should still be tolerated as long as they do not harm the liberty of others.
40
Why was John Stuart Mill and important liberal ?
- Provides a bridge between classical liberalism and modern liberalism.
- said to represent 'transitional liberalism'.
41
What idea was put forward in Mills 'On Liberty' (1859)?
- Puts forward the idea of negative freedom.
- Argues that freedom is mainly characterised by the absence of restraint.
- Links to Mills' notion of the 'harm principle' - individuals actions should be tolerated so long as they do not infringe on another persons liberty.
42
In what categories did Mill divide human action?
- Self-regarding and other-regarding.
- Self-regarding vices such as acts of worship and personal views should be tolerated.
Other-regarding vices such as violent behaviour should not be tolerated by a liberal state
43
Why did Mill fear the democratic state?
- Felt that it might lead to the tyranny of the majority.
- Felt that the notion of government by consent would be compromised if the interests of some liberal-minded individuals were denied by the votes of uneducated voters.
44
What are the differing liberal views on the economy?
- Defend private property.
- Defend capitalism and inequality.
45
What is economic liberalism?
- Also known as capitalism.
- Reflects the liberal belief that private property is a natural right and that private enterprise allows individual liberty.
46
Which liberals defend private property?
- Locke
- Mill
47
What is the liberal view on private property?
- Locke emphasises that private property is a 'natural right' which predates the state.
- Mill also argues that property ownership facilitated individualism and incentivised individual enterprise.
- Property is seen by liberals as a crucial vehicle for self realisation and selfofetermination.
- Locke also notes when lots of people own property it provides further protection against concentrated power.
48
Who is the original liberal economist?
- Adam Smith (18th Century)
- Focus on private enterprise and private ownership of the economy.
49
Why do liberals support a capitalist economy?
- Supports their positive view of human nature.
- Adam Smith argues that if obstacles to free trade were removed and individuals were allowed to trade freely, then the 'invisible hand' of market forces would enrich individuals and nations.
50
Why do liberals defend the inequality of outcome produced by capitalism?
- Argue that individual wealth will eventually trickle down to the rest of society.
- Endorse Mill's view that unequal outcomes are constituent with a meritocratic society - encourages individualism.
(Rawls however argues that liberals should only support equality of outcome if its accompanied by equality of opportunity).
51
What economic model did 19th century liberals support?
- laissez-faire capitalism.
(mill)
52
What economic model did liberals in the 20th century support?
- Keynesian capitalism.
(Rawls_
53
What is Keynesianism?
- Based on work of liberal economist John Maynard Keynes.
- Form of capitalism that involves the state managing market forces to ensure steady growth and full employment - therefore creating greater individual liberty.
54
What does Locke say on the state?
"The government should always be the servant, not the master of the people".
Links to the social contract.
55
Evidence on the social contract in politics?
The American Declaration of Independence (1776)
- states that when the government becomes tyrannical "it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".
56
What do liberals believe are the objectives of the state?
- Promoting natural rights.
- Equal opportunities, unequal outcomes.
- Promotion of tolerance.
57
What rights is the liberal state supposed to protect?
- The right to life, property an the pursuit of self fulfilment.
58
Social Contract
- Linked to Enlightenment thinkers John Locke and Rousseau.
- Indicates that the state should be a deal between the government and the governed.
- The state is supposed to guarantee certain outcomes - eg the protection of natural rights.
59
Which liberals promote the idea that it is the role of the state to promote natural rights?
- Rawls argues that liberalism is 'state-sponsored individualism'.
- The state can help individuals enjoy their natural rights more easily.
- Locke notes that the state of nature can lead to clashes of interest - the state can act to resolve these.
60
Which liberal promote inequality of outcome?
- Rawls - argues that whilst equality of opportunity should be pursued - inequality of outcome is inevitable and desirable.
- Liberal state will allow meritocratic inequality of outcome - one that rewards individual efforts and achievement rather than hereditary advantage.
61
How do liberals propose that the liberal state promotes tolerance?
- Classical liberal like Mill claim that education was a way that tolerance could be encouraged.
- 20th century liberals like Friedan argue that the states role in promoting tolerance should extend to illegalising sexual and racial discrimination.
- Also believed a more tolerant society could be 'psychologically embedded' by the state through bureaucratic agencies with and educational function.
(eg the UK's Equality and Human Rights Commission).
62
How do liberals suggest that the powers of the state are limited by?
- Preconditions of government - the terms of which the governed initial give their consent to be governed.
- Procedures and methods of the government.
- enshrined in a condition.
- liberal constitution aim to give the same political and legal rights to all - also to apply the 'rule of law'.
63
Evidence of liberal principles being enshrined in constitutions?
- Liberal state created by the creation of the American Constitution at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787.
64
Foundational Equality:
- Liberal belief that all individuals are born equal and therefore are entitled to equal treatment by the state.
65
What is John Locke's view of the state?
- Belief that the states powers should be fragmented.
- Reaction to pre-Enlightenment states were power was concentrated in the monarchy.
-Lord Act "power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely."
66
Where can dispersed state power be best seen?
- Constitution of the US - heavy focus on the separation of powers and a series of 'checks and balances' - prevent one branch of gov becoming too powerful.
67
Which liberals promote a representative state?
- Locke - notion that the state derives its power from its citizens rather than the divine right of kings.
(partly inspires AmRevs no taxation with representation.)
-Betty Friedan also argues that liberals should always reject the conservative idea of the paternalistic state.
68
What is the meritocratic state?
- Liberal state must be meritocratic.
( governed by those who have earned rather than inherited their authority).
- goes against the notion of hereditary privilege in the pre-enlightenment state.
69
Which liberals were opposed to universal adult suffrage?
Locke and Mill.
Locke disagreed with the vote being given to those without property as it would threaten the natural rights of property owners'.
Mill thought giving the uneducated the vote would leaf to a lack of tolerance to minority viewpoints and erode individuality.
70
Which liberals support universal suffrage?
Friedan and Rawls.
- In line with the modern liberal promotion of representative democracy.
71
Argument that liberalism IS a contradiction in terms?
- Democracy tends to be guided by majorities - therefore threatens individuals with minority views.
- Classical liberals favoured a limited electorate. ( Mill thought the vote should be given to those with appropriate education).
- Natural rights theory implies that certain principles are non-negotiable, regardless of election results.
72
Argument that liberalism is NOT a contradiction in terms?
- Liberalism endorses self-determination and democracy allows individuals to shape their lives at the ballot box.
- Liberalism endorsed gov by consent which democracy facilitates.
- Liberalism dislikes the concentration of political power - which democracy helps avoid.
- Liberalsim believes humans are rational - electors should therefore be capable of making ration and sensible decisions.
- Mill said that democracy would help to educate individuals.
73
Who were the classical liberals?
- John Locke.
- Mary Wollstonecraft.
- John Stuart Mill.
( also enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire, the US Founding Father and late 18th century economists like Adam Smith).
74
What are the key features of classical liberalism?
- Revolutionary implications.
- Negative Liberty.
- Minimal Government.
- Laissez-faire capitalism.
- Ambivalence over democracy.
75
How were Locke's theory of government by consent viewed in the 17th and 18th century?
- Considered revolutionary and potentially violent.
- Rejected the twin pillars of the traditional democratic state - the divine right of kings and monarchical absolutism.
- Locke's philosophy was associated with the Glorious Revolution and the establishment of constitutional government in England.
- Helped inspire the American revolution.
( view also held by Wollstonecraft with her support of the French Revolution).
76
Negative Liberty:
- Associated with John Locke and John Stuart Mill.
- Argues that people are born free from both interference from the gov and other individuals.
- central to classical liberalism and Neo-liberalism.
77
The seminal work of which liberal thinker is associated with negative liberty?
- John Stuart Mill's - 'On Liberty' .
- Links to the idea that Mill viewed freedom as humans being left alone to determine their own destiny.
- Links to Locke's atomistic view of human nature - society being defined by a multitude of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals.
78
What is the classical liberal view of limited government?
- Minimal government reflects the concept of negative liberty by minimising state activities - eg legislation and taxing as infrequently as possible.
- According to Locke and Mill governments should be restricted not just in terms of how they act, but in terms of whether they act - links to negative liberty.
79
Where does the Classical Liberal view of the economy derive from?
- Adam Smith's - The Wealth of Nations (1776).
- Strongly commended by John Stuart Mill.
- Smith argues that capitalism has a limitless capacity to enrich individuals - as long as state intervention in the economy was strongly restricted.
- Links to negative liberty.
- Smith advocates for the end of tariffs and other forms of economic protectionism.
80
Laissez-fair capitalism:
- Linked to classical liberals and economic theories of Adam Smith.
- Refers to an economy where private enterprise and market forces exist with minimal interference from the state.
81
Why was John Locke hesitant about democracy?
- Locke agreed with the US Founding Fathers that suffrage should be reserved to property owners.
- Universal suffrage could threaten the natural property rights of a minority.
82
Why was John Stuart Mill hesitant about democracy?
- Felt that democracy was inevitable.
- Mill was hesitant because by the mid-19th century most adults had no formal education and therefore Mill felt that they were ill-equipped to make rational choices.
- Mill argues that universal suffrage must be preceded by universal education - thought that mass education would lead to a liberal consensus.
83
Evidence of Mill's apprehension about democracy in the 21st Century?
- Assumption that those who disagree with liberal views simply don't understand them seen after the Brexit referendum.
- Those who voted remain were viewed as more liberal and had a greater proportion of individuals with uni education than the leave vote.
84
Who are modern liberal thinkers?
- T.H Green
- Betty Friedan
- John Rawls.
85
Political figures that could be considered modern liberal thinkers:
- David Lloyd George.
- F.D. Roosevelt.
- John Maynard Keynes.
( Beveridge Report - 1942).
86
What was modern liberalism a response to?
- Social and economic changes that had happened post-Locke.
- Industrial Revolution 18th-19th century - meant that people were no longer 'autonomous', rather they dependent on a series of factors.
87
How did the liberal government of 1906-1910 provide early evidence of a liberal government in action?
- Lloyd George and Asquith provided an example of modern liberalism through their peoples budget (1908) - introduced state pensions and was designed to liberate people from financial problems,
88
Evidence of Keynesian economics in modern politics:
- Shaped FD Roosevelts 'New Deal' in the USA in the 1930s.
- Framed the economic strategies of UK governments between 1945 and 1979.
89
How was the Beverage Report and example of modern liberalism?
- Became the bedrock of the post-war 'welfare state;.
- Predicted that individuals would face 'five giants' that would threaten their freedoms post-war.
- Beverage argued that these threats could only be overcome by a 'welfare state' that would enable individuals 'from cradle to grave'.
90
Who was Thomas Hill Green (1836-82)?
- Late Victorian Philosopher.
- Founding father of modern liberalism.
- Linked to 'positive freedom' - the revised version of 'negative liberty' that was associated with Mill.
91
What classical liberal view on human nature did Green reject?
- Rejected that society was composed of egotistical individuals.
- Claimed that individuals weren't only driven by self-interest but also driven by the desire to promote the common good.
92
What was Green's view on the state?
- Argued that the state should promote the widest possible degree of choice and opportunity for everyone.
- But argues that the state should still prioritise individualists.
93
Which politician does Green inspire?
- David Lloyd George with his expansion of state powers.
94
What are the key features of modern liberalism?
- Positive Liberty.
- The Enabling State.
- Keynesian Capitalism.
- Liberal Democracy.
- Social Liberalism.
95
What was Greens view on positive liberty?
- Freedom as not being just the freedom from oppressive rulers.
- It's about empowering individuals to help themselves.
96
What is the enabling state?
- Linked to positive Liberty and the work of Rawls.
- The role of the state being extended so its activities liberate people from social and economic issues allowing them to reach their 'full potential'.
97
Evidence of the enabling state in politics:
- UK's post-war welfare state.
- 'Big government initiatives - New Deal 1930s.
98
Why was the enabling state criticised by Neo-liberals.
- Preferred the classical liberal idea of minimal government.
- Friedrich Von Hayek calls it 'socialism in disguise' and therefore 'the road to serfdom'
- Rawls argues against this by suggesting that only an enlarged state could create the equality of opportunity necessary for individual freedom.
99
John Rawls background:
- Considered the most important exponent of modern liberalism in the twentieth century.
- His 'A Theory of Justice' remains important.
- Considers foundational equality and showing that the redistribution of wealth was consistent with liberal principles.
100
What did Rawls mean by 'foundational equality':
- Social and economic equality.
- Rawls argued that this was necessary to ensure a just society where all lives were fulfilled.
- This could be only achieved by an 'enabling state'.
101
Why did Rawls defend wealth redistribution?
- Argues that it was consistent with liberal principles based on the 'veil of ignorance'.
- Veil of ignorance consideration that when people don't know their place in society - rational humans choose a society where the poorest faired significantly better than in the present society.
102
Evidence of the 'enabling state' in action under Joe Biden:
- Built upon 'Obamacare 2010'.
- Biden's reforms included guaranteeing health-care provision for anyone unable to meet increased premium levied by private health-care compare.
- Lowered the age of eligibility for Medicare.
103
Evidence of tolerance in action in the Liberal Democrat 2019 manifesto:
- 2019 argued for a more tolerant Britain.
- eg reform go the Gender Recognition Act.
- Greater wheelchair access in public transport stations.
104
What is the modern liberal view on the economy?
- Reflects its rejection of negative liberty and minimal government.
- Promotes greater state intervention in the market economy.
- Influenced by John Maynard Keynes.
105
What is Keynes' view on the economy?
- Argued that minimal state intervention led to mass unemployment, resulting in a loss of freedom and putting people at risk of fascism and communism.
- Self-fulfilment and liberty endangered by joblessness.
106
Which liberal thinker supports Keynesian economics?
- John Rawls.
- Expansion of state spending could help tackle the 5 Giants of the Beveridge report.
107
Evidence of modern liberals seeking greater enfranchisement?
- Lloyd George oversaw the start of enfranchisement for women in 1918.
- Liberal parties in the UK have championed reducing the voting age. q
108
What is the modern liberal view on democracy?
- Supports greater enfranchisement.
- Still does not support direct democracy and referendums.
- Has been willing to limit representative democracy through its backing of the Human Rights Act and support for the EU.
109
Argument that modern liberalism HAS abandoned the principles of classical liberalism:
- Different views on freedom - negative vs positive freedom.
- Classical prefer a minimal state whereas modern prefer an enlarged state.
- Classical liberals saw taxation as theft, modern liberals see it as enabling.
- Classical prefer laissez-faire capitalism, modern liberals prefer Keynesian economics.
- Classical liberals ambivalent about democracy - modern liberals champion representative democracy.
110
Argument that modern liberalism HAS NOT abandoned the principles of classical liberalism:
- Both have an optimistic view of human potential.
- Both believe in rationalism and the tolerance of minorities.
- Both see individualism as the end goal of politics and society.
- Both believe in capitalism and criticise state ownership.
- Both believe in a constitutional state and government by consent.
111
What is social liberalism?
- Reflects the work of Betty Friedan.
- Updates the liberal belief in tolerance - argues for legislation which illegalises discrimination on the grounds of race, gender, disability etc.
- calls for positive discrimination, affirmative action.
112
Evidence of positive discrimination in action associated with social liberalism:
- USA's Equal Employment Opportunity Commission - required positive discrimination in respect of hiring employees from racial minorities.
- The UK's Race Relation Acts.
- UK's Marriage Act (2013) - legalised same sex marriage.
113
What is the social liberal view on transgender rights?
- Some see transgender rights as the latests liberal challenge for those championing tolerance.
- Some liberal feminists also see transgenderism as a threat to individual rights of cisgendered women.
114
Key works of Betty Friedan:
- The Feminine Mystique (1963).
115
What was Friedan'd feminist perspective?
- Felt that it was an illiberal society which condemned women to underachievement,
- Felt that this was nurtured through 'cultural channels' such as school, organised religion and the media.
- This led to a cultural conditioning where many women were convinced the there lot in life was determined by 'iron laws' and that Friedan sought to challenge this irrational assumption.
116
Argument that liberals do have a consistent view of the state:
- Liberals believe in a constitutional state.
- Consistently believe in government by consent and the notion that the state is a contract between the government and the governed.
- Consistently believe in a limited government where politicians are restrained by a constitution.
117
Argument that liberals DO NOT have a consistent view of the state:
- The liberal state has not consistently upheld foundational equality - slow to adopt to the principles of democracy, sexual equality and universal adult suffrage.
- Has not consistently upheld government by consent.
- The liberal state is not consistently minimal - modern liberals argue for the expansion of the state in the name of 'positive liberty'.
118
John Locke: Human Nature.
- Human beings are rational, guided by the pursuit of self-interest, but mindful of other concerns.
119
John Locke: The State.
- State must be representative - based on government by consent.
120
John Locke: Society.
- Society predates the state.
- There were natural societies, with natural rights and laws.
121
John Locke: The economy.
- State policy should respect the natural right to private property and arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade and resources.
122
Mary Wollstonecraft: Human Nature.
- Rationalism defies both genders.
- 'The mind has no gender'.
123
Mary Wollstonecraft: The State.
- Monarchical state should be replaced by a republic that enshrines women's rights.
124
Mary Wollstonecraft: Society.
- Existing society stifles female individualism.
125
Mary Wollstonecraft: The Economy.
- Free-market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women.
126
John Stuart Mill: Human Nature.
- Though rational, human nature isn't fixed.
- Argues that it is forever progressing to a higher level.
127
John Stuart Mill: The State.
- State should proceed cautiously towards representative democracy - mindful of minority rights.
128
John Stuart Mill: Society.
- The best society is one where individualists co-exists with tolerance and self betterment.
129
John Stuart Mill: The Economy.
- Laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise and individual initiative.
130
John Rawls: Human Nature.
- Mankind is selfish yet empathetic.
- Values both individual liberty and the plight of others.
131
John Rawls: The State.
- The state should enable the less fortunate individuals to advance through public spending and services.
132
John Rawls: Society.
- The society most individuals would choose is one which allows unequal outcomes, but where the contain of the poorest improves.
133
John Rawls: The Economy.
- Free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state's obligation to advance its poorest citizens.
134
Thomas Hill Green: Human Nature.
- Human beings are guided by reason, but their reason is increasingly affected by social and economic circumstances.
135
Thomas Hill Green: The State.
- State should actively eliminate social and economic obstacles to individual liberty.
136
Thomas Hill Green: Society.
- Society was fundamentally altered by industrialisation, which leads to a need for the 'reappraisal' of the term freedom.
137
Thomas Hill Green: Economy.
Free market economy is the most conductive to individualism - however it can threaten equality of opportunity.
138
Betty Friedan: Human Nature.
- Human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women.
139
Betty Friedan: The State.
- The state should legislate to precent continued discrimination against women.
140
Betty Friedan: Society
- Society remains chauvinistic towards women, though women are complicit in their repression.
141
Betty Friedan: The Economy.
- Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination.
142
Tensions within liberalism: Human Nature.
- All liberals believe human beings are generally rational and keen to advance their individual happiness and are respectful go others.
- John Locke argues that individuals are inherently blessed with such qualities.
- John Stuart Mill and modern liberals like Rawls see these qualities as potential features of human nature - to be developed by enlightened liberal authorities.
143
Tensions within liberalism: The State.
- all liberals believe that governments should function based on pre-arranged rules and the principle of government by consent.
- Vary on the extent of state activity.
- Classical liberal like Mill, in accordance with negative liberty, believe that state intervention should be minimal.
-Modern Liberals like Friedan, in accordance with positive liberty, believe that state intervention should be more extensive, 'enabling' us to reach our potential.
- Modern liberals like Rawls see representative democracy as enhancing constitutional governments - classical liberals like Locke saw universal suffrage as a threat to property rights.
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Tensions within liberalism: Society.
- All liberals believe that society predates the state and that certain rights are natural.
- Classical liberals see society as a collection of autonomous individuals.
- Modern liberals like Rawls think that industrialised societies leave individuals less autonomous and therefore in greater need of state intervention.
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Tensions within liberalism: The economy.
- Following Locke's assertion that property is natural right - all liberals believe that the economy should be based on private enterprise.
- Classical liberals like Adam Smith favour laissez-faire capitalism where as modern liberals such as Rawls favour Keynesian economics.
