Liberalism

Question 1

Natural rights

Answer 1

Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away

Question 2

Formal equality

Answer 2

The idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society

Question 3

Social contract

Answer 3

The idea that the state is a ‘deal’ between the government and the governed, where the governed must submit to the state’s laws in exchange for rights

Question 4

Meritocracy

Answer 4

A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work

Question 5

Mechanistic theory

Answer 5

The idea that the state reflects the needs of mankind

Rebuttal to ‘divine right’ theories that state reflects the will of God

Question 6

Tolerance

Answer 6

A willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees

Question 7

Limited government

Answer 7

The role of the government is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power

Question 8

Egotistical indiviualism

Answer 8

The idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals

Question 9

Developmental individualism

Answer 9

The idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing

Question 10

Keynesianism

Answer 10

An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve fill employment and price stability

Question 11

Harm principle

Answer 11

The idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other indivudals

Question 12

Minimal state

Answer 12

The idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty

Question 13

Enabling state

Answer 13

A larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free

Question 14

Freedom / liberty

Answer 14

The ability and right to make decisions in your own interests based on your view of human nature

Question 15

Rationalism

Answer 15

The belief that humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic
Underpins an individual’s ability to define their best interests and make their own moral choices

Question 16

Liberal view of human nature

Answer 16

Optimistic
Capable of bringing about progress and forging greater human happiness
Believe that individuals are guided principally by reason and rationality, which is manifested in debate and discussion, which leads to consensus
Capable of planning their own future and shaping their own destiny
Egotistical individualism - seek independence
Reason and rationality prevent egotistical individualism from leading to destructive selfishness and competition

Question 17

Liberal view of the state

Answer 17

Believe that individualism and capitalism work best when accompanied by a state
Necessary to provide the formal structures required to resolve clashes between individuals, as individualism in the state of nature could have been impeded by stalemated disputes between competing individuals
Mechanistic theory - The state reflects the will of mankind

Question 18

Liberal view of society

Answer 18

A ‘natural’ society exists with ‘natural’ laws and natural rights, which precede the state
Role of society is to facilitate individualism
Promotes the ‘right’ to property, as it is the tangible expression of an individual within society, and the prism through which individuals develop their potential

Question 19

Liberal view of the economy

Answer 19

Supports an economy based on private property (capitalism)
Strongly associated with private enterprise and private ownership of the economy
Support for capitalism linked to its positive view of human nature - ‘invisible hand’ of market forces - Adam Smith

Question 20

Equality / social justice

Answer 20

Belief that individuals are of equal value and that they should be treated impartially and fairly by society

Question 21

John Locke (classical liberal)
Two Treatises of Government (1690)

Answer 21

Human nature - Rational and mindful of others’ concerns
The state - Must be representative of the people, based on the consent of the governed. Responsible for arbitrating between rational individuals competing for trade and and resources
Society - Predates the state - natural laws / natural rights
The economy - ‘Natural right’ to private property should be respected by the state
Social contract - Society, the state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement
Limited government

Question 22

John Rawls (modern liberal)
A Theory of Justice (1971)

Answer 22

Human nature - Selfish yet emphatic (same as Locke)
The state - Should enable less fortunate individuals to advance via public spending and public services
Society - Responsible for improving the conditions of the poorest
The economy - Free market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens
Veil of ignorance - hypothetical scenario where individuals agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society

Question 23

Liberal democracy

Answer 23

A democracy that balances the will of the people with limited government and a respect for civil liberties in society

Question 24

John Stuart Mill (later classical liberal)

On Liberty - 1859

Answer 24

Human nature - Rational, continuously developing
The state - Should proceed cautiously towards representative democracy, mindful of minority rights
Society - Individuality should co-exist with tolerance and self-improvement
The economy - Laissez-faire capitalism vital to progress and individual enterprise
Harm principle - Used to advance individual liberty
Tolerance - the belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct
Negative freedom

Question 25

State of nature

Answer 25

What life might have been like before laws, rules and governments came into being

Question 26

Foundational equality

Answer 26

Every individual is born equal, and are therefore entitled to legal equality, such as equality before the law and recognition of individual rights

Question 27

Classical liberalism and modern liberalism similarities and differences

Answer 27

``` Optimistic view of human potential Rationalism Tolerance See individualism as the goal of politics and society Capitalism Limited government ``` Negative liberty v positive liberty Minimal state v enabling state Anti taxation v pro taxation Laissez-faire capitalism v Keynesian capitalism

Question 28

Tensions within liberalism over society

Answer 28

Universal - See society as a collection of individuals seeking self-determination Classical - Believe that human society predates the state Modern - Individuals in industrialised societies are less autonomous, and thus require state support to be free (positive liberty) Neo-liberals - See society as one where individuals have been stymied by positive liberty and that the dependency culture must be corrected

Question 29

Tensions within liberalism over human nature

Answer 29

Universal - Believe that individuals are rational and egotistical Classical and neo-liberals - Believe these qualities to be innate Modern - Believe this rationalism to be potential, needing to be developed by the state

Question 30

Tensions within liberalism over the state

Answer 30

Universal - Belief that the state should function according to prearranged rules and procedures, with power separated and authority subject to the consent of the people Classical - Believe state intervention should be minimal (negative liberty) / democracy threatens property rights Modern - Advocate for extensive state intervention in order to 'enable' individuals to reach their potential (positive liberty) / representative democracy enhances constitutional government

Question 31

Tensions within liberalism over the economy

Answer 31

Universal - Support for a capitalist economy based on private property and private enterprise Classical and neo-liberals - Support a laissez-faire attitude to the economy Modern - Support regular state management of the economy to ensure full employment - link to EU support

Question 32

Objectives of the liberal state

Answer 32

Rejection of the traditional pre-Enlightenment state Government by consent (social contract) - John Locke - "government should always bet the servant of the people" Natural rights / individualism - only logical for individuals to consent to the social contract if it promoted natural rights, such as individualism, as they enjoyed these without a state Tolerance / harm principle - views and activated should be tolerated unless that harm the freedom of others (Mill) Meritocracy - (link to stress on individualism) opposed pre-Enlightenment sentiment Equality of opportunity - foundational equality Justice

Question 33

Methods and structures of the liberal state

Answer 33

Limited government Separation of powers (Locke) Formal equality - the rule of law

Question 34

Types of liberalism

Answer 34

Classical liberalism - split into early classical liberalism and later classical liberalism Modern liberalism

Question 35

Early classical liberalism

Answer 35

``` Represents the attempt to relate the core beliefs of liberalism to the political and economic climate of the 1690's - 1890's Revolutionary potential Negative liberty Minimal state Laissez-faire capitalism ```

Question 36

Later classical liberalism

Answer 36

Response to industrialisation in a bid to maintain relevancy of core liberal ideas John Stuart Mill Representative democracy in response to universal suffrage Universal education preceding universal suffrage, promoting developmental individualism, which would advance individual potential and produce a liberal consensus in society

Question 37

Modern liberalism

Answer 37

Positive liberty / social justice Enabling state (John Rawls) - guaranteed the equality of opportunity necessary to enable individual freedom (indifferent to equality of outcome) Constitutional reform / liberal democracy - secures government by consent Social liberalism - Large state creating legislation that may criminalise actions that discriminate against individuals

Question 38

Neo-liberalism

Answer 38

Friedrich von Hayek Seeks to update the principles of classical liberalism within a modern setting - reapply the ideas of Adam Smith and Thomas Jefferson to modern, globalised economies Offers a liberal critique of modern liberalism, accusing it of betraying individualism (enabling state) Support negative freedom and a minimal state, wanting a reduction in public spending and less state regulation on the economy Smaller government = lower rates of taxation and a greater focus on enterprising individualism Routinely labelled as conservatives (New Right)

Question 39

Pro liberalism is incompatible with democracy

Answer 39

Democracy tends to be guided by the majorities - potential for 'tyranny of the majority' Classical liberals favour a limited electorate, so as to safeguard property rights Mill thought votes should only be given to those with appropriate education levels Modern liberals flirt with unelected, supranational bodies like the EU, where there is a 'democratic deficit' Liberals seek to mitigate democracy by supporting constitutional devices

Question 40

Anti liberalism is incompatible with democracy

Answer 40

Democracy complements individualism, allowing individuals to shape their lives via voting in a representative democracy Democracy complements government by consent Democracy helps to avoid the concentration of political power Democracy is optimistic about human nature, presupposing an intelligent electorate that is capable of rational decisions

Question 41

Pro liberals have a coherent view of the state

Answer 41

Believe in a constitutional state, drawn up asa result of rational discussion, based on belief that human beings are rational Believe in government by consent - social contract Believe in limited government, with politicians restraint dby the rules of the constitution

Question 42

Anti liberals have a coherent view of the state

Answer 42

Supports foundational equality, with all individuals being treated equally, but was slow to adopt the principles of democracy, sexual equality and universal adult suffrage Extols the natural right to property, but fails to recognise that most individuals under the state's jurisdiction have not owned property Supposed to be limited, but modern liberals have advocated a signifiant extension of state intervention in the name of positive liberty Modern liberals have compromised their belief in government by consent by supporting supranational bodies such as the EU, which erode the authority of elective parliaments and representatives

Question 43

Pro liberalism can be reconciled with conservatism

Answer 43

Both support private property and capitalism Both see inequality of outcome as a sign of liberty Both deny the inevitability of class conflict Neo-liberals and New Right conservatives support a laissez-faire economy

Question 44

Anti liberalism can be reconciled with conservatism

Answer 44

Liberals have an optimistic view of human nature, whereas conservatives are sceptical of it Liberals see rationalism as central to human behaviour, whereas conservatives stress habit, emotion and expression Liberals prioritise individual liberation, whereas conservatives stress order and restraint Liberals see individuals as potentially autonomous, whereas conservatives see individuals as communal Liberals extol free-market capitalism, whereas traditional conservatives are more sceptical and protectionist

Question 45

Pro liberalism can be reconciled with socialism

Answer 45

Both products of the Enlightenment Both have a positive view of human nature, believing in the possibility of progress Both stress liberty and equality Both reject hereditary political power and paternalism Socialism and modern liberalism endorse positive liberty and further state intervention

Question 46

Anti liberalism can be reconciled with socialism

Answer 46

Liberals prioritise individual liberty, whereas socialists prioritise a fairer society Liberals think individuals shape society, whereas socialists think society shapes individuals Liberals see inequality of outcome as a sign of freedom, whereas socialists think it prevents equality of opportunity Liberals see capitalism as a condition of freedom, whereas fundamentalist socialists see it as a threat to freedom Classical and neo-liberals wish to reduce the role of the state, whereas socialists wish to extend state intervention