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Liberalism Flashcards

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1
Q

Where did the roots of liberalism lie?

A

In the reformation, a religious movement.

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2
Q

What was the enlightenment?

A

An intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-seventeenth century - defined by a belief in reason rather than faith.

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3
Q

What is the mechanistic theory?

A

Written but John Locke - argues that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs.

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4
Q

What was john Lockes book called?

A

Two Treatises of Government

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5
Q

What questions did John Locke raise?

A

Questions regarding Human nature and the type of state that was therefore appropriate.

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6
Q

What did John Locke deny regarding tradition?

A

Locke denied the traditional medieval principle that the state was part of gods creation

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7
Q

Where did Locke believe that the state had come from?

A

He said there was a “natural society” which served mankind’s interests tolerably well. - called the “state of nature”

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8
Q

What was john lockes view on human nature?

A

He had an upbeat view of human nature, believing humans were rational.

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9
Q

What did Locke believe that the modern state should do?

A

To resolve disputes between individuals more efficiently than what would be the case under the state of nature.

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10
Q

For Locke, how would the “state of law” be legitimised?

A

Only if it respected natural rights and natural laws, thus ensuring that individuals living under formal laws were never consistently worse off than if they had been in the state of nature.

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11
Q

What would Lockes ideal state reflect?

A

That the citizens had voluntarily consented to accept the states rulings in return for the state improving their situation. - social contract theory

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12
Q

What is the social contract theory?

A

That citizens have consented the states ruling over them.

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13
Q

What is limited government?

A

That the government should always represent the interests of the governed and always requiring the ongoing consent of the governed.

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14
Q

What does liberalism argue about human nature?

A

It argues that human nature has a huge capacity to bring about progress, and an unending ability to forge greater human happiness.

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15
Q

What do liberals believe individuals are guided by?

A

Reason and rationalism

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16
Q

What do liberals believe mankind’s innate reasons is manifested in?

A

Debate, discussion, peaceful argument and the measured examination of ideas and opinions

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17
Q

What were problems seen as to liberals

A

Merely challenges awaiting reasoned solutions; on account of human nature, individuals who really want something can usually achieve it through reason plus determination.

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18
Q

What is egotistical individualism?

A

The belief that human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own, selfish interests and the pursuit of their own happiness.

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19
Q

What did Thomas hobbes argue about human nature in his book Leviathan

A

Argued that human nature is so brutally selfish that no society could possibly arise, or survive, until human nature is restrained by a strong, formal authority - a state.

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20
Q

What do liberals believe that the “default setting” of a society is?

A

The focus upon individual freedom and that any society which seeks to deny individualism is dysfunctional.

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21
Q

What was property described as my Mill and what are liberals views on property?

A

Property is a Prism, where individuals develop their potential, providing an opportunity, within civilised communities.

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22
Q

What is individualism?

A

The principle that individuals need to be at the heart of political thought.

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23
Q

What is economic liberalism?

A

Economic system that involves private property, individual traders cooperating and competing.

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24
Q

Who came up with the theory of trickle down economics and what did it involve?

A

Adam smith - economic success and wealth would “trickle down” to everyone in society

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25
What does state of nature mean?
Justifies the very different types of political state they were proposing. It referred to what life might have been like before laws.
26
What view do liberals have if human nature?
Optimistic
27
What did Locke believe was the role of the state?
A state was needed to arbitrate effectively between the competing claims of rational individuals
28
What did liberals reject?
The rejection of the traditional state, rejecting monarchical, absolutist and arbitrary rule.
29
What is needed for a state to become legitimate?
Governments must have the consent to be governed by the people.
30
What was the quote about government by consent and who said it ?
John Locke - “government should always be the servant not the master, of the people.”
31
What do liberals believe a state should do before the people submit to it?
The state should promote and protect natural rights.
32
What is the harm principle? And who came up with it?
John Stuart Mill - actions that might be frowned upon should be tolerated, just as long as they do not “harm” the freedom of others.
33
What is foundational equality?
Refers to the liberal belief that every individual is born equal, with equal natural right. Such individuals are therefore entitled to legal equality in a liberal state.
34
What do all individuals need to achieve control of their own lives and fulfil their potential?
- equality of opportunity
35
What 3 features are needed in the structure of the state?
- constitutional/ limited government - fragmented government - formal equality
36
What is a limited government?
Involves the governments power being limited in terms of how it can act, by a constitutions rules.
37
What is a fragmented government?
Where the power of government is divided into different branches, each branch has a check one balance on other branches. E.g. USA - separation of powers
38
What dates was Classical liberalism?
Late seventeenth - late nineteenth centuries
39
What were the four features of early classical liberalism?
- revolutionary potential - negative liberty - minimal state - Laissez faire capitalism
40
What is laissez faire capitalism?
Belief in private property, and the classical liberal belief in “negative liberty”, this is an economic system which allows private enterprise and capitalism to operate with little or no interference from the state
41
What is negative liberty?
Notion of freedom that involves individuals being left alone to pursue their destiny. Any attempt to interfere with individual actions may therefore be judged an infringement on liberty
42
What was Mary Wollstonecrafts most famous books? When was it written?
A Vindication of the Rights of women - 1792
43
What was Wollstonecrafts main claim?
That the optimistic view of human nature should apply to all human beings, male and female
44
What did Wollstonecraft argue about 18th century England?
She argued that both state and society implied that women were not rational, and thus denied individual freedoms
45
What did Wollstonecraft argue violated government by consent?
The fact that women were not vote
46
What was wollstonecrafts other major work? And what did it criticise?
Vindication of the rights of Men - attacked edmund Burke’s critique of the French Revolution
47
What did Wollstonecraft argue women were?
Complicit in their subjugation, generally desiring only marriage and motherhood.
48
What did Wollstonecraft argue could fix women’s natural subjugation?
Formal education
49
What is minimal state and what branch of liberalism did it originate from?
Classical liberalism - reflected the concept of “negative liberty” by minimising state activities - for example taxing and legislating as infrequently as possible.
50
What dates was Later classical liberalism?
Early 19th century - mid 19th century
51
What did John Stuart Mill Fear?
The tyranny of the majority
52
Who came up with the utilitarian philosophy and what did it argue?
Jeremy Bentham - idea that each individual would seek to maximise their own utility by maximising personal pleasure and minimising personal pain
53
What was Bentham and advocate for and why?
Democracy - governments were more likely to follow the “greatest happiness of the greatest number if they were elected by and accountable to “the greatest number” of voters.
54
What was Samuel Smiles’s book called?
Self help - 1859
55
What did Smiles argue regarding industrialised societies?
He realised that industrial societies made it harder for individuals to be self-reliant, however to overcome these obstacles individuals would be challenged more rigorously and, in the process become more fully developed.
56
What did Mill do regarding democracy?
Updated Lockes case for representative government into a case for representative democracy.
57
What is developmental individualism?
John Stuart Mills philosophy - focuses on what humans could become rather than what they had become, explained his strong emphasis upon education.
58
What was John Stuart Mills main idea and book called?
“On liberty” - main principle was negative freedom
59
What did Mill see as an engine of ongoing human development?
Liberty
60
What was Stuart Mills individuality concept?
What humans could become in the future
61
What did Mill fear about a democratic state?
That it had the potential to create a tyranny of the majority
62
What are the arguments that liberal democracy’s contradict themselves?
- democracy threatens minorities with tyranny of the majority - classical liberals favour a limited electorate to safe guard property - Stuart mill thought votes should only be given to those with appropriate education - modern liberals flirt with supranational bodies like the EU where there is lack of democracy
63
What are the arguments that a liberal democracy does not contradict itself?
- Democracy complements individualism, allowing individuals to shape their future via a ballot box - democracy complements “government by consent” - democracy helps avoid the concentration of political power - democracy is optimistic about human nature it presupposes an intelligent electorate capable fo rational decisions
64
When was modern liberalism?
Late 19th century to present
65
What is positive freedom?
The belief that individuals left alone are often inhibited rather than “free”. Such individuals may need enabling so that they are “free” to exercise their individual talents.
66
What did new liberals such as T.H.Green argue about advanced societies?
They argued that individuals were increasingly exposed to socio-economic forces beyond their control which restricted their liberty. They argued that social justice was now required if individuals wanted to fulfil their potential
67
What did Modern liberals believe would help repel these socio-economic forces?
An enlarged state.
68
What did John Rawls argue a state should do?
- more laws - more spending - more taxation - more bureaucracy
69
What does enlarged state mean?
A state that extends its activities so as to “liberate” individuals from restrictive social and economic problems, thus “enabling” them to fulfil their potential
70
Why was Maynard Keynes convinced laissez faire capitalism wasn’t working?
Because of the cyclical nature of it that causes mass unemployment and poverty - Great Depression.
71
What did Keynes argue was needed to prevent the cyclical nature of capitalism?
The state must constantly “steer” the economy and manage demand so as to secure full employment.
72
What does enabling state mean?
Linked to the notion of positive liberty, a enabling state was one that extended its activities so as to “liberate” individuals from restrictive social and economic problems, thus “enabling” them to fulfil their potential.
73
What was John Rawls book called?
A theory of justice - 1971
74
What did john Rawls argue was needed to fufill all lives?
Foundational equality.
75
What did Rawls Book argue?
It set out how such a redistribution of wealth was not (as Von Hayek had suggested) a “surrender of socialism”
76
What did Rawls argue about a “fairer” society?
He argued that a fairer society where inequalities were reduced, was the one individuals would choose
77
What did Rawls argue regarding society’s poorest and richest?
He said this was a secondary concern, a claim most socialists would vigorously refuse.
78
What did Rawls argue about the inequality gap?
He argued that the gap between the richest and poorest should necessarily be narrowed.
79
What was the third feature of modern liberalism?
Constitutional change.
80
What did Hobhouse say regarding state?
“If the state is to be enlarged, it must also be improved”
81
What are liberal demands for reforms?
Codified constitution
82
What act do UK liberals favour?
The Human Rights Act
83
What are the arguments that suggest that modern liberalism has abandoned the principle of classical liberalism?
- classical liberals want a minimal state, modern liberals wanted an enlarged state - classical liberalism defied liberty as individuals being left alone, modern liberals think individuals are not free unless they are actively enabled via interference from others. - classical liberals dislike taxation, modern liberals often see increased taxation as the key method for implementing positive freedom. - classical liberals favoured laissez faire capitalism, modern liberals favoured keynsian. - classical had an ambivalent view of democracy, modern liberalism has championed representative democracy
84
What are the arguments that suggest modern liberalism has no abandoned the principles of classical liberalism?
- both classical and modern liberalism have an optimistic view of human potential - both believe in rationalism and insist upon tolerance of minorities - both see individualism as the gol of politics and society - both believe in capitalism and oppose state ownership of the economy. - both believe in a constitutional state and government by consent.
85
What is social liberalism?
This represents an updated version of the historic liberal belief in tolerance. It involves legislation that may criminalise actions that discriminate against individuals on the grounds or race, gender, sexual orientation.
86
What thinker was a social liberal?
Betty Friedan
87
What are examples of social liberal legislation?
Race relations act 1976 | Sex discrimination act 1975
88
What was Betty Friedans most famous work called?
The feminine Mystique- 1963
89
What did Friedan argue in her book?
That individuals should be free tho seek control over their own lives, however women did not get that opportunity.
90
What did Friedan argue was the cause of women’s underachievement?
Illiberal attitudes in society and the established institutions such as religion and media
91
How did Friedan believe change and equality would be brought about ?
Legal equality, brought through via the state and legislation
92
What is an example of a neo-liberal thinker?
Von Hayek
93
What was Von Hayek’s most famous work called?
The road to serfdom - 1944
94
What is an example of liberals disapproving conservative legislation?
David Cameron’s promotion of marriage via the tax system - liberals argued that this was an intrusion of people’s personal lives
95
What are the 5 liberal thinkers and their respective branches within liberalism?
John Locke - original liberalism Mary Wollstonecraft - classical liberalism John Stuart mill - later classical liberalism John Rawls - modern liberalism Betty Friedan - new-liberalism

Political Ideologies (3 decks)

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