Liberalism Flashcards
Memorise all arguments, thinkers, their works and examples. (33 cards)
Give one way in which Liberals agree on Freedom (State/Society)
Link between freedom and tolerance - tolerate diverse views, customs etc. Mill - argued popular view not necessarily correct - if ban alternative views, may be banning better views and practices Rawls - suggest a just society must tolerate the intolerant otherwise would be intolerant and unjust itself
What is Negative Freedom? (State/Economy/Society)
Classical idea - give state negative role of not intervening ‘Harm Principle’ - MILL in his work ‘On Liberty’ (1859), stating that the state can only intervene ‘to prevent harm to others’
What is Positive Freedom? (State/Economy/Society)
Modern Idea - recognises that liberty is threatened by social disadvantages + inequality, not allowing us to reach full potential Instead of minimal state, modern liberals like GREEN + RAWLS endorse enabling state e.g. welfare like NHS or Obamacare 2010 CAROLE PATEMAN - criticise male-centric conception of freedom which excluded women
What is the Classical view on Economics? (Economy)
Laissez-faire - few state regulations, subsidies & taxes as possible = negative freedom SMITH “Wealth of Nations” 1776 - when rational indv. left to make self-interested decisions = guided by ‘invisible hand’ e.g. ^ demand = need ^ supply = ‘self-regulating’
What is the Classical view on Property? (Human Nature/Society/Economy)
LOCKE - it is a natural right, specified in ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1689) “every man has a property in his own person” But states that you must never take more than you need. (Can link to agree or disagree with liberalism)
What is Social Darwinism? (State/Society)
Adapted Darwin’s theory of ‘survival of the fittest’ into human society, based on egoistical individualism Justify minimal state + negative rights, indv. effort only way people improve SMILES book ‘Self Help’ 1859 - ‘heaven helps those who helps themselves’ - we must be self-sufficient and pursue our own improvement - heavily influential
How do Liberals agree on Equality? (Society/State)
Formal equality - idea indv. should enjoy same formal status within society Rights should not be reserved for any particular class, gender, etc. Legal equality (equality before law) + political (one person, one vote) links to democracy Thinkers: Wollstonecraft, stated that women should have civil liberties + called divine right of kings absurd Friedan - Feminine Mystique 1963, women as capable as men so oppressive laws must be overturned
How do Liberals disagree on social equality/equality of outcome? (Society/State/Economy)
Classic - endorse strict meritocracy on both economic + moral grounds thus oppose all measures to improve social equality - believe focus should incentives to work Modern - social justice to imply belief in some measures of social equality e.g. Rawls ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971) argued economic inequality only justifiable if it works to benefit poorest, wealth not come at expense of others GREEN - ideas influence 1942 Beveridge Report = post war welfare
What are Rawls’ 2nd Principle of Justice? (State/Society)
“Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions” to be allowed a) “fair equality of opportunity” b) “greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society - The Difference Principle = those born with advantages do not deserve it as birthright True potential only achieved through equal opportunity
How does Rawls agree with Classical Liberals in relation to areas: - Belief in meritocracy - Social Justice - Natural Rights
1) Supports it, so ideas support classical self-determination + self-reliance 2) Supports social justice, but permits inequality as long those who do well not benefit at expense of least well-off = supports individualism 3) Argued veil of ignorance showed all want equal society with everyone’s natural rights = respected by law + society
How does Rawls differ from Classical Liberals in relation to: - State - Equality - Meritocracy - Individualism/Freedom
1) Enabling state, believed that all would support if they thought via ‘veil’ 2) Believed that classical idea of ‘Foundational Equality’ should also be economic + social, go against MILLS and Wollstonecraft view on educated elite influence 3) Influence of T.H. Green on post-war welfare state emphasised that one’s indv position e.g. race, gender - significant in success/failure - so substantial ^ in state’s role = necessary 4) Stated egoistical indv + negative freedom - exacerbated current social inequality rather than addressing them e.g. racism in work or gender discrimination
How did Friedan agree with Classical Liberals in relation to: - Meritocracy - Equality - State
1) Focused on ‘achieving one’s full potential’ - saying society oppressed women’s desire to pursue career - fits with idea of self-determination e.g. SMILES ‘Self-Help’ 1859 2) Continued work of Wollstonecraft, focusing on principles of all are equal worth = equal rights (level playing field) 3) Respected procedures of the US state, seeking reform through diplomatic ways, not transforming all of society e.g. 1963 Equal Pay Act, 1964 Civil Rights Act
How do the strands agree on Human Nature? (3 points)
- Optimistic view on human nature, and therefore tolerant in order to enjoy freedoms - We are individuals - starting point for the ideology (LOCKE - self-interested/FRIEDAN - women want to pursue their own careers) - Rational, capable of perceiving interests + taking own decision, people should be free to make most of their talent = equality of opportunity
How do the strands disagree on Human Nature? (2 points) - Individualism - Concern for others Give example thinkers + view of J.S. MILL
Egoistical vs Developmental - Classical - people should be restricted only when risk to others (MILL - harm principle) Modern - Favour external intervention by state to counter social injustice (FRIEDAN - state should force companies/people to provide equal opportunity) Selfish vs degree of altruism Classical - LOCKE - idea emphasised self-interest overall, self-development Modern - Rawls agreed humankind - self-interested, but empathetic = veil MILL = bridge, emphasising being moral + thinking of others = high pleasure
In Human Nature, how do Classical Liberals argue that egoistical individualism and tolerance are connected?
Egoistical individualism = aspect of human nature is being self-aware of our aims, whilst living in peace, harmony and mutual understanding with those around you. (MILL + LOCKE)
How do the strands agree on Society? - Individualism - Rights + Liberties (Civil Society) - Equality (Formal) (Include 2 thinkers for each point)
1) Subscribe to individualist concept of society, society best constructed by free indv. best serve interests + purposes. LOCKE - indv. rational, self-interested in own person RAWLS - ‘original position’ concept - we make rational decisions e.g. respect rights 2) Civil Society - no absolute freedom as it = abuse of others All agree state must have powers that can be exercised over indv. if threaten others - MILL + RAWLS accept this concept - society is distinct from state, so indv. have largely free choice of action 3) All indv. = born equal ‘formal equality’ with all having same legal + political rights, also must be tolerant society LOCKE - believed natural rights for all, FRIEDAN stated it should mean equal rights for men and women
How do the strands agree on Equality of Opportunity in relation to the state and society? What does Equality mean for Liberals?
Every indv. should have same chance to rise (or fall) MILL + RAWLS - not mean total equality of outcome or reward, or equal living stds As some prepared to work harder, must award based on merit, essential to retain incentives to use talent + determination - so liberals support Capitalism (due to incentives and reward) Equality for liberals - equal opportunities to develop their unequal skill and abilities
How do the strands disagree on society? - Individualism - Rights + Liberties (freedoms) - Equality
1) Atomism vs Common Good Classical - atomistic, society = collection of self-sufficient, egoistical indv. MILL - advocated concept of meritocracy where indv. succeed through own ability + hard work Modern - society more than sum of indv. Egoism tempered by sense of social responsibility, esp. to those unable to fully support themselves e.g. state assistance in combating poverty = necessary to help people flourish - RAWL’s ‘original position’ - indv. choose society where poorest in better condition 2) Negative vs Positive Classical - freedom from constraints, society only exists to limit outside interference Modern - ‘true freedom’ to grow + achieve not possible in isolation, requires outside support e.g. courts, legislation e.g. FRIEDAN 1964 Civil Rights Act 3) Strict meritocracy vs outside support Classical - strict, LOCKE, grounds of both incentives + fairness - some deserve to be better off due to own efforts Modern - MILL, RAWLS, T.H. GREEN - substantive equality of opportunity - those who suffer from material inequalities should be provided with equal opportunities - too wide a gap = restriction often for reasons not own - higher indv. must recognise and contribute for good of society e.g. higher taxes
What were the views of LOCKE and MILL in relation to Society, referencing the work of MILL?
LOCKE - natural rights (life, liberty, and property) all surpass the state - society most focus upon indv. freedom MILL - main purpose of any society is to facilitate individualism ‘On Liberty’ 1859 - means freedom from dependency on others (i.e. the state/society) + freedom to live one’s life in a way which maximises self-reliance + self-fulfilment
In relation to the State, what theory is supported by all and what 2 liberal attitudes does it embody?
Social Contract Theory 1) Political authority from ‘BELOW’ - citizens consent to state that serves their needs + interests (govt can be removed if not) 2) The State = neutral arbitrator devoid of bias towards any group or interests, not formed of self-interested elite - solve conflicts fairly
How do the strands disagree on the State? - Limited Govt (type of state) - Individualism - Liberal Democracy
TYPE OF STATE: Classical - minimal, protect negative rights, guarantee formal equality of opportunity - simply has defence, police + court system - LOCKE - uphold only property rights, not give state too much power (night watchman) Modern - Enabling, promote positive freedom, substantive equality of opportunity - FRIEDAN + RAWLS (indv. unable to utilise theoretical freedom due to circumstances INDIVIDUALISM: Classical - negative freedom, against welfare due to indv = dependent on state, MILL - people should be left to own decisions, gain stronger through experience Modern - Positive freedom, state must provide enabling conditions for indv. to be truly self-reliant e.g. BEVERIDGE 1942 report (5 giants) est. welfare state LIBERAL DEMOCRACY: Classical - negative rights, concerned by majoritarianism + extending franchise, MILL + WOLLSTONECRAFT - argued to extend to women, but that those with superior education (and the propertied) have more votes than the less educated (who get none) - in order to protect their ‘natural rights’ to property Modern - developmental individualism - all should engage in political debate to express views, enfranchisement would give reason to be educated on issues + authority from below needs consensus of the people - FRIEDAN
What threats do all liberals agree on in relation to the State? (2 points) (Include the name of a figure who revealed an issue) - what must liberal democracies do?
1) As liberals prioritise indv., govt potentially tyrannical due to indv = self-seeking, so may use power for own benefit than those of the people 2) Alexis de Tocqueville - ‘tyranny of the majority’, govt backed by a majority = crush liberty of minority Montesquieu - ‘power should check power’ (via separation of powers) + Liberal democracies must ensure rights of minorities are protected e.g. Bill of Rights
How do the strands agree in relation to the State? - Purpose of the State - Restrictions - It’s role in the lives of individuals
PURPOSE: LOCKE - Mechanistic view, state created by man to serve the ppl + act in our interests = must be representative + RAWLS - modernised ‘social contract’ (ROUSSEA’s theory) via rational indv. ‘behind veil of ignorance’ - to decide rules for just + fair state RESTRICTIONS: Constitutionalism - as ‘power corrupts’ - need internal + external constraints to prevent executive tyranny - all liberals support constitution e.g. US, indv. rights protected or entrenched MONTESQUIEU - separation of powers = prevent any indv./group = too powerful FRIEDAN - state must enact law’s to protect women’s rights - noted by WOLLSTONECRAFT 2c. earlier ROLE (INDIVIDUALISM): LOCKE - necessary to settle disputes of property in swift and fair manner - if govern ourselves - life = short and brutish
Give 3 objectives of a Liberal State, including thinkers to support an essay argument:
1) REJECTION OF THE ‘TRADITIONAL’ STATE: - Against monarchical, absolutist and arbitrary rule (state in which power is concentrated) - against ‘divine right’ to rule 2) MERITOCRACY: - Supported by likes of LOCKE, MILL, RAWLS, FRIEDAN, etc. - political power + position only exercised by those worthy of it, instead of hereditary (merit over nobility) - unlike previous monarchies - nobility has no place in Liberal state (LOCKE + MILL) 3) GOVERNMENT BY CONSENT: - LOCKE maintained ‘govt should always be the servant, not the master, of the people’ = ‘govt be contract’ = dubbed SOCIAL CONTRACT by ROUSSEAU - people allow themselves to be governed + follow laws of govt as long as govt protects their rights
