Liberalism

Question 1

Give one way in which Liberals agree on Freedom (State/Society)

Answer 1

Link between freedom and tolerance - tolerate diverse views, customs etc. Mill - argued popular view not necessarily correct - if ban alternative views, may be banning better views and practices Rawls - suggest a just society must tolerate the intolerant otherwise would be intolerant and unjust itself

Question 2

What is Negative Freedom? (State/Economy/Society)

Answer 2

Classical idea - give state negative role of not intervening ‘Harm Principle’ - MILL in his work ‘On Liberty’ (1859), stating that the state can only intervene ‘to prevent harm to others’

Question 3

What is Positive Freedom? (State/Economy/Society)

Answer 3

Modern Idea - recognises that liberty is threatened by social disadvantages + inequality, not allowing us to reach full potential Instead of minimal state, modern liberals like GREEN + RAWLS endorse enabling state e.g. welfare like NHS or Obamacare 2010 CAROLE PATEMAN - criticise male-centric conception of freedom which excluded women

Question 4

What is the Classical view on Economics? (Economy)

Answer 4

Laissez-faire - few state regulations, subsidies & taxes as possible = negative freedom SMITH “Wealth of Nations” 1776 - when rational indv. left to make self-interested decisions = guided by ‘invisible hand’ e.g. ^ demand = need ^ supply = ‘self-regulating’

Question 5

What is the Classical view on Property? (Human Nature/Society/Economy)

Answer 5

LOCKE - it is a natural right, specified in ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1689) “every man has a property in his own person” But states that you must never take more than you need. (Can link to agree or disagree with liberalism)

Question 6

What is Social Darwinism? (State/Society)

Answer 6

Adapted Darwin’s theory of ‘survival of the fittest’ into human society, based on egoistical individualism Justify minimal state + negative rights, indv. effort only way people improve SMILES book ‘Self Help’ 1859 - ‘heaven helps those who helps themselves’ - we must be self-sufficient and pursue our own improvement - heavily influential

Question 7

How do Liberals agree on Equality? (Society/State)

Answer 7

Formal equality - idea indv. should enjoy same formal status within society Rights should not be reserved for any particular class, gender, etc. Legal equality (equality before law) + political (one person, one vote) links to democracy Thinkers: Wollstonecraft, stated that women should have civil liberties + called divine right of kings absurd Friedan - Feminine Mystique 1963, women as capable as men so oppressive laws must be overturned

Question 8

How do Liberals disagree on social equality/equality of outcome? (Society/State/Economy)

Answer 8

Classic - endorse strict meritocracy on both economic + moral grounds thus oppose all measures to improve social equality - believe focus should incentives to work Modern - social justice to imply belief in some measures of social equality e.g. Rawls ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971) argued economic inequality only justifiable if it works to benefit poorest, wealth not come at expense of others GREEN - ideas influence 1942 Beveridge Report = post war welfare

Question 9

What are Rawls’ 2nd Principle of Justice? (State/Society)

Answer 9

“Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions” to be allowed a) “fair equality of opportunity” b) “greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society - The Difference Principle = those born with advantages do not deserve it as birthright True potential only achieved through equal opportunity

Question 10

How does Rawls agree with Classical Liberals in relation to areas: - Belief in meritocracy - Social Justice - Natural Rights

Answer 10

1) Supports it, so ideas support classical self-determination + self-reliance 2) Supports social justice, but permits inequality as long those who do well not benefit at expense of least well-off = supports individualism 3) Argued veil of ignorance showed all want equal society with everyone’s natural rights = respected by law + society

Question 11

How does Rawls differ from Classical Liberals in relation to: - State - Equality - Meritocracy - Individualism/Freedom

Answer 11

1) Enabling state, believed that all would support if they thought via ‘veil’ 2) Believed that classical idea of ‘Foundational Equality’ should also be economic + social, go against MILLS and Wollstonecraft view on educated elite influence 3) Influence of T.H. Green on post-war welfare state emphasised that one’s indv position e.g. race, gender - significant in success/failure - so substantial ^ in state’s role = necessary 4) Stated egoistical indv + negative freedom - exacerbated current social inequality rather than addressing them e.g. racism in work or gender discrimination

Question 12

How did Friedan agree with Classical Liberals in relation to: - Meritocracy - Equality - State

Answer 12

1) Focused on ‘achieving one’s full potential’ - saying society oppressed women’s desire to pursue career - fits with idea of self-determination e.g. SMILES ‘Self-Help’ 1859 2) Continued work of Wollstonecraft, focusing on principles of all are equal worth = equal rights (level playing field) 3) Respected procedures of the US state, seeking reform through diplomatic ways, not transforming all of society e.g. 1963 Equal Pay Act, 1964 Civil Rights Act

Question 13

How do the strands agree on Human Nature? (3 points)

Answer 13

• Optimistic view on human nature, and therefore tolerant in order to enjoy freedoms - We are individuals - starting point for the ideology (LOCKE - self-interested/FRIEDAN - women want to pursue their own careers) - Rational, capable of perceiving interests + taking own decision, people should be free to make most of their talent = equality of opportunity

Question 14

How do the strands disagree on Human Nature? (2 points) - Individualism - Concern for others Give example thinkers + view of J.S. MILL

Answer 14

Egoistical vs Developmental - Classical - people should be restricted only when risk to others (MILL - harm principle) Modern - Favour external intervention by state to counter social injustice (FRIEDAN - state should force companies/people to provide equal opportunity) Selfish vs degree of altruism Classical - LOCKE - idea emphasised self-interest overall, self-development Modern - Rawls agreed humankind - self-interested, but empathetic = veil MILL = bridge, emphasising being moral + thinking of others = high pleasure

Question 15

In Human Nature, how do Classical Liberals argue that egoistical individualism and tolerance are connected?

Answer 15

Egoistical individualism = aspect of human nature is being self-aware of our aims, whilst living in peace, harmony and mutual understanding with those around you. (MILL + LOCKE)

Question 16

How do the strands agree on Society? - Individualism - Rights + Liberties (Civil Society) - Equality (Formal) (Include 2 thinkers for each point)

Answer 16

1) Subscribe to individualist concept of society, society best constructed by free indv. best serve interests + purposes. LOCKE - indv. rational, self-interested in own person RAWLS - ‘original position’ concept - we make rational decisions e.g. respect rights 2) Civil Society - no absolute freedom as it = abuse of others All agree state must have powers that can be exercised over indv. if threaten others - MILL + RAWLS accept this concept - society is distinct from state, so indv. have largely free choice of action 3) All indv. = born equal ‘formal equality’ with all having same legal + political rights, also must be tolerant society LOCKE - believed natural rights for all, FRIEDAN stated it should mean equal rights for men and women

Question 17

How do the strands agree on Equality of Opportunity in relation to the state and society? What does Equality mean for Liberals?

Answer 17

Every indv. should have same chance to rise (or fall) MILL + RAWLS - not mean total equality of outcome or reward, or equal living stds As some prepared to work harder, must award based on merit, essential to retain incentives to use talent + determination - so liberals support Capitalism (due to incentives and reward) Equality for liberals - equal opportunities to develop their unequal skill and abilities

Question 18

How do the strands disagree on society? - Individualism - Rights + Liberties (freedoms) - Equality

Answer 18

1) Atomism vs Common Good Classical - atomistic, society = collection of self-sufficient, egoistical indv. MILL - advocated concept of meritocracy where indv. succeed through own ability + hard work Modern - society more than sum of indv. Egoism tempered by sense of social responsibility, esp. to those unable to fully support themselves e.g. state assistance in combating poverty = necessary to help people flourish - RAWL’s ‘original position’ - indv. choose society where poorest in better condition 2) Negative vs Positive Classical - freedom from constraints, society only exists to limit outside interference Modern - ‘true freedom’ to grow + achieve not possible in isolation, requires outside support e.g. courts, legislation e.g. FRIEDAN 1964 Civil Rights Act 3) Strict meritocracy vs outside support Classical - strict, LOCKE, grounds of both incentives + fairness - some deserve to be better off due to own efforts Modern - MILL, RAWLS, T.H. GREEN - substantive equality of opportunity - those who suffer from material inequalities should be provided with equal opportunities - too wide a gap = restriction often for reasons not own - higher indv. must recognise and contribute for good of society e.g. higher taxes

Question 19

What were the views of LOCKE and MILL in relation to Society, referencing the work of MILL?

Answer 19

LOCKE - natural rights (life, liberty, and property) all surpass the state - society most focus upon indv. freedom MILL - main purpose of any society is to facilitate individualism ‘On Liberty’ 1859 - means freedom from dependency on others (i.e. the state/society) + freedom to live one’s life in a way which maximises self-reliance + self-fulfilment

Question 20

In relation to the State, what theory is supported by all and what 2 liberal attitudes does it embody?

Answer 20

Social Contract Theory 1) Political authority from ‘BELOW’ - citizens consent to state that serves their needs + interests (govt can be removed if not) 2) The State = neutral arbitrator devoid of bias towards any group or interests, not formed of self-interested elite - solve conflicts fairly

Question 21

How do the strands disagree on the State? - Limited Govt (type of state) - Individualism - Liberal Democracy

Answer 21

TYPE OF STATE: Classical - minimal, protect negative rights, guarantee formal equality of opportunity - simply has defence, police + court system - LOCKE - uphold only property rights, not give state too much power (night watchman) Modern - Enabling, promote positive freedom, substantive equality of opportunity - FRIEDAN + RAWLS (indv. unable to utilise theoretical freedom due to circumstances INDIVIDUALISM: Classical - negative freedom, against welfare due to indv = dependent on state, MILL - people should be left to own decisions, gain stronger through experience Modern - Positive freedom, state must provide enabling conditions for indv. to be truly self-reliant e.g. BEVERIDGE 1942 report (5 giants) est. welfare state LIBERAL DEMOCRACY: Classical - negative rights, concerned by majoritarianism + extending franchise, MILL + WOLLSTONECRAFT - argued to extend to women, but that those with superior education (and the propertied) have more votes than the less educated (who get none) - in order to protect their ‘natural rights’ to property Modern - developmental individualism - all should engage in political debate to express views, enfranchisement would give reason to be educated on issues + authority from below needs consensus of the people - FRIEDAN

Question 22

What threats do all liberals agree on in relation to the State? (2 points) (Include the name of a figure who revealed an issue) - what must liberal democracies do?

Answer 22

1) As liberals prioritise indv., govt potentially tyrannical due to indv = self-seeking, so may use power for own benefit than those of the people 2) Alexis de Tocqueville - ‘tyranny of the majority’, govt backed by a majority = crush liberty of minority Montesquieu - ‘power should check power’ (via separation of powers) + Liberal democracies must ensure rights of minorities are protected e.g. Bill of Rights

Question 23

How do the strands agree in relation to the State? - Purpose of the State - Restrictions - It’s role in the lives of individuals

Answer 23

PURPOSE: LOCKE - Mechanistic view, state created by man to serve the ppl + act in our interests = must be representative + RAWLS - modernised ‘social contract’ (ROUSSEA’s theory) via rational indv. ‘behind veil of ignorance’ - to decide rules for just + fair state RESTRICTIONS: Constitutionalism - as ‘power corrupts’ - need internal + external constraints to prevent executive tyranny - all liberals support constitution e.g. US, indv. rights protected or entrenched MONTESQUIEU - separation of powers = prevent any indv./group = too powerful FRIEDAN - state must enact law’s to protect women’s rights - noted by WOLLSTONECRAFT 2c. earlier ROLE (INDIVIDUALISM): LOCKE - necessary to settle disputes of property in swift and fair manner - if govern ourselves - life = short and brutish

Question 24

Give 3 objectives of a Liberal State, including thinkers to support an essay argument:

Answer 24

1) REJECTION OF THE ‘TRADITIONAL’ STATE: - Against monarchical, absolutist and arbitrary rule (state in which power is concentrated) - against ‘divine right’ to rule 2) MERITOCRACY: - Supported by likes of LOCKE, MILL, RAWLS, FRIEDAN, etc. - political power + position only exercised by those worthy of it, instead of hereditary (merit over nobility) - unlike previous monarchies - nobility has no place in Liberal state (LOCKE + MILL) 3) GOVERNMENT BY CONSENT: - LOCKE maintained ‘govt should always be the servant, not the master, of the people’ = ‘govt be contract’ = dubbed SOCIAL CONTRACT by ROUSSEAU - people allow themselves to be governed + follow laws of govt as long as govt protects their rights

Question 25

Why do liberals support a fragmented government, what was the quote by Lord Acton?

Answer 25

Rationality of the indv. - disperses power, in order to maintain a self-determined + effective govt, whilst also having the institutions necessary to prevent the self-interest of the govt from infringing the rights of the people ‘power tends to corrupt…and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely’

Question 26

How do the strands agree in relation to the economy? (3 points) - Type of Economy - Taxation - State Intervention

Answer 26

CAPITALIST ECONOMY: Agree capitalism = most suitable for liberal economy, supporting natural right of private property - both strands support free market LOCKE - idea of private property - natural right laid out in ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1689) RAWLS - ‘difference principle’ - recognise capitalism incentivises hard work = meritocracy TAXATION: Both agree to keep it minimal, LOCKE stating it is their private property (income) + due to incentives provided by low taxation (Modern) - MILL supported taxation on products like alcohol if it possessed utilitarian grounds STATE INTERVENTION IN ECONOMY: Some intervention necessary to ensure success - e.g. state protect property rights + should not be equality of outcome (socialist) SMITH - ‘Wealth of Nations’ (1776), indirectly encouraged promoting the purchase of luxuries in order for upper classes to invest their surplus wealth back into economy = ‘trickle down’ to help support disadvantaged - his ideas = intend to make ‘all nations and people happier’ FRIEDAN - intervention in relation to opportunity (support by MILL + WOLLSTONECRAFT) - give women equal opportunity = maximise talent of economy

Question 27

How do the strands disagree in relation to the Economy? (3 points) - Type of Economy - Taxation - State Intervention (funding of state provisions and services) (Include thinkers, examples, and works)

Answer 27

TYPE OF ECONOMY: Classical - SMITH, ‘Wealth of Nations’ (1776), laissez-faire - leaving people alone, optimistic view of human nature in pursuing self-interest = free market guided by ‘invisible hand’ - believed economy correct itself - wealth ‘trickle down’ Modern - Keynesian Economics, RAWLS - supported Keynes idea of intervention (managing demand, keeping unemployment low - instead of leaving market to go through recession) - ‘social contract’ - state must help people TAXATION: Classical - minimal taxation as it punishes hard work + success - only use funds to support a ‘night watchman state’, not govt welfare projects (undermines self-reliance) = SMILES’ social darwinism ‘Self-Help’ 1859 Modern - Society contributes much to Wealth creation - Taxation = not redistribution, its society taking fair share for its contribution (what it has done to allow success) e.g. labour; research, etc. Society = partner in success of market, so allowed to take contribution via taxes to then help society e.g. RAWLS STATE INTERVENTION (links to TAXATION): Classical - Social Darwinism, S. SMILES, people must not be dependent on state financing, encourage self-improvement (LOCKE) - ‘Self-Help’ (1859) = ‘bible of mid-Victorian Liberalism’ - led to little to no taxation until emergence of ‘New Liberalism’ early 20th C. Modern - Social Liberalism - KEYNES’ ideas encourage thinkers such as RAWLS to support extensive intervention - recognise unrestricted free market = unnecessary + avoidable harm during recession e.g. Great Depression + re-emergence in 2008 KEYNES - opposed reduced spending + leaving it to repair itself (classical methods) - support state managing markets themselves = stimulate growth + public projects (^ employment) - against idea of leaving it to the ‘invisible hand’ of the free market

Question 28

What were the key ideas of J.S. MILL, and what was his most influential work and the date it was published? (2 ideas)

Answer 28

Harm Principle - indv. should be free to do anything except harm others - principle of ‘self-regarding rights’ Tolerance - popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct - promote plurality for wide range of ideas ‘On Liberty’ 1859

Question 29

What were the key ideas of MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, and what was her most influential work and the date it was published? (2 ideas)

Answer 29

Reason - women are rational + independent beings capable of reason (just like men) Formal Equality - in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties + allowed to have career - supported educational rights which would then in turn = advance social + economic position to be equal with men, civil rights would then follow = gender equality advanced ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ (1792)

Question 30

What were the key ideas of JOHN RAWLS, and what was his most influential work and the date it was published? (2 ideas)

Answer 30

Theory of Justice - opinion that society must be just + guarantee each citizen a life worth living e.g. enabling state - support positive role of the state in supporting indv. Veil of Ignorance - hypothetical scenario, rational indv. agree that most ideal society is one which they do not mind which circumstances they are born into e.g. poorest, richest, etc. - aimed to achieve social justice via such ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971)

Question 31

What were the key ideas of BETTY FRIEDAN, and what was her most influential work and the date it was published? (2 ideas)

Answer 31

Legal Equality - women = as capable as men + oppressive laws + social views must be overturned - women should have right + opportunity to break confines of domestic life to play fuller + equal role in public life Equal Opportunity - women are being held back from their potential due to limited opportunities that are ‘acceptable for women’ - wanted career opportunities to be advanced (WOLLSTONECRAFT wanted educational provision) ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963)

Question 32

What were the key ideas of JOHN LOCKE (also attributed to ROUSSEAU and HOBBES), and what was his most influential work and the date it was published? (2 ideas)

Answer 32

Social Contract Theory - society, state + govt based on a theoretical voluntary agreement - govt based on consent + indv’s right to withdraw that consent e.g. election Limited Government - govt should be limited an based on consent from below - notion of innate rights (natural) - influenced US Constitution ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1689)

Question 33

Outline General Arguments in Liberalism, Classical vs Modern Ideas

Answer 33