Liberalism: the state, society, economy and human nature, and differing views and tensions (L2.1/2)

Question 1

What is liberalism?

Answer 1

Liberalism is a family of political ideologies that promote liberty and rights guaranteed by a constitutional state based on the consent of those ruled by that state.

Question 2

How did liberalism seek to achieve human freedon and liberty?

Answer 2

Liberalism sought to achieve this by creating a constitutional form of government where the law applied equally to all and guaranteed their rights.

Question 3

What is classical liberalism?

Answer 3

A strand of liberal thought which believes individual freedom is best achieved with a minimal state.
> Negative freedom
> Free-market capitalism
> Limited government based on consent
> Minimal taxation; non-interventionalist
> Egoistical individualism

Question 4

What is modern liberalism?

Answer 4

Modern liberalism argues freedom cannot be simply defined as “being left alone”, yet instead focuses on positive freedom; the freedom to develop through access to education, healthcare and basic necessities.
> Supports an enabling state
> Welfare system
> Keynesian economics
> Developmental individualism

Question 5

What do classical liberals think about human nature?

Answer 5

Human nature is fundamentally good; people are peaceable and get along with each other

Question 6

What do classical liberals think about rationality?

Answer 6

People are rational and capable of understanding the world around them and their relationships with other people
> Rationality means people will look after themselves and their families first, but also recognise the need to get along with others

Question 7

What do modern liberals think about human nature?

Answer 7

Human nature only develops fully in a broader social context
> More altruistic view of human nature, believing in a society where resources support the disadvantaged

Question 8

What do modern liberals think about rationalism?

Answer 8

Retains belief in human rationality but sees it as something that must be developed through education
> Human potential is only fully realised if people grow up with enough to eat, somewhere safe to live, good health, and proper education

Question 9

What is rationalism?

Answer 9

The belief that humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic.

Question 10

What do classical and modern liberals agree on in terms of human nature?

Answer 10

• Rationality
• Moral equality
• Capacity for freedom
• Autonomy

Question 11

What type of individualism do classical liberals believe in?

Answer 11

Egoisticial individualism

Question 12

What type of individualism do modern liberals believe in?

Answer 12

Developmental individualism

Question 13

What is individualism?

Answer 13

The primacy of the individual in society over any group.
> Each individual is unique and has the ability to develop as such
> Society exists to serve individuals; individual freedom and autonomy should be protected

Question 14

What is egoistical individualism?

Answer 14

This view suggests that people are largely self-focused, rational beings who best pursue their goals when left alone.
> It emphasises self-reliance, with people being responsible for their own welfare without expecting help from others or the state.

Question 15

What is developmental individualism?

Answer 15

This view recognises that individual potential can only be fully realised with adequate resources like education, healthcare, and social support.
> Modern liberals argue that true freedom requires more than just being left alone—it requires positive conditions that enable personal growth and flourishing.

Question 16

What does classical liberalism think about the state?

Answer 16

The state is based on a social contract and consent of the governed
> Should be a limited, minimal government/state

Question 17

What do classical liberals think the state’s role should be?

Answer 17

• The state is necessary to avoid disorder but potentially “evil” as it can remove individual liberty
• State should uphold the rule of law, where the law applies equally to everyone
• Not democratic: early classical liberals feared the “tyranny of the majority”

Question 18

What type of (specific) view do classical liberals have of the state?

Answer 18

Mechanistic view of the state: the state is something people construct to serve their rationally decided interests

Question 19

What is a ‘social contract’?

Answer 19

Theoretical agreement amongst the members of society to establish a state and political authority.

Question 20

What is a limited government?

Answer 20

Governmental powers should be restricted to those agreed in the social contract.
> Defined and constrained by laws; constitutional; individual liberties are protected.

Question 21

What does modern liberalism think about the state, in general (what contract, and what specific view?)

Answer 21

Based on a different form of social contract (Rawls’s “veil of ignorance”)
> Still sees the state as mechanistic (rationally constructed)

Question 22

What do modern liberals think about the state, in connection with the economy and welfare?

Answer 22

Enabling state: provides education, healthcare, housing, and other essentials
> Greater role in regulating the economy and creating a fair, just society
> Support for the welfare state to ensure everyone’s basic needs are met
> State has role in redistributing some wealth to promote greater equality

Question 23

What do classical and modern liberals agree on in terms of the state?

Answer 23

• Consent-based legitimacy
• Constitutional limitations
• Protection of rights
• Rule of law
• Mechanistic view
• Separation from religion

Question 24

What does classical liberalism think about society?

Answer 24

Society would exist naturally and peacefully in the “state of nature”
> Society should be driven by individual self-interest and the freedom it brings
> Limited concern with society as a whole; focus is on individuals getting along with each other

Question 25

What is the 'state of nature'?

Answer 25

The 'state of nature' is a theoretical concept used to describe human society before or without formal government and laws.

Question 26

What do classical liberals think about tolerance and rights in society?

Answer 26

- Tolerance of different beliefs and ways of living (particularly emphasised by Mill) - Rights exist prior to the state; state's purpose is to protect them

Question 27

What is tolerance?

Answer 27

Conditional acceptance of or non-interference with beliefs, actions or practices that one might personally consider wrong but still 'tolerable', such that they should not be prohibited or constrained

Question 28

What does modern liberalism think about society?

Answer 28

Society should be characterised by social justice (fairness) > Society has a responsibility to ensure all individuals can develop their potential > Diversity welcomed and tolerance extended beyond what classical liberals advocated

Question 29

What is social justice/equality?

Answer 29

The belief that individuals are of equal value and that they should be treated impartially and fairly by society.

Question 30

What is foundational equality?

Answer 30

Belief that all human beings are born equal, regardless of who they are > No person deserves special privileges or rights.

Question 31

What is formal equality?

Answer 31

Equality before the law > Law applies equally to everyone > Nobody receives special legal privileges or disadvantages > Everybody has the same legal rights and protections

Question 32

What is equality of opportunity?

Answer 32

Principle that everyone should have the same chance to succeed in life based on their talents and effoerts, rather than their background.

Question 33

What is a meritocracy?

Answer 33

A meritocracy is a system where advancement and success are based on individual ability, talent, effort and achievement rather than on factors such as wealth, social class or inherited privilege. > Positions are filled by those deemed most talented and qualified through competition.

Question 34

What type of equality of opportunity do classical liberals propagate?

Answer 34

Non-discriminatory > Removal of legal barriers that prevent individuals from fairly competing > No discrimination based on characteristics like race or gender > Meritocratic system

Question 35

What type of equality of opportunity do modern liberals propagate?

Answer 35

Substantive equality of opportunity > Recognition that formal rights are insufficient without resources to exercise them > Provision of education, healthcare and basic welfare to all > Active steps to counteract disadvantages > Anti-discrimination law

Question 36

What is a liberal democracy?

Answer 36

A democracy that balances the will of the people, as shown through free and fair elections, with limited government and a respect for civil liberties.

Question 37

What do classical liberals think about liberal democracy?

Answer 37

Sceptical > Feared the 'tyranny of the majority' > Worried the propertyless masses would vote to redistribute wealth

Question 38

What is the 'tyranny of the majority'?

Answer 38

Concept referring to the potential danger in democratic systems where the majority can use their voting power to oppress minority groups or individuals

Question 39

What do modern liberals think about liberal democracy?

Answer 39

Much more supportive > Believe education and greater social justice make democracy work better > Support a 'liberal democracy' that balances majority rule with protection of individual rights

Question 40

What does classical liberalism think about the economy?

Answer 40

Free market (laissez-faire) economic policy > The capitalist economy is self-regulating if left alone > The "hidden hand of the market" ensures goods people need are produced > Economic crises should not occur if the market is truly free

Question 41

What do classical liberals think about taxation, and the individual?

Answer 41

Taxation should be low and not progressive Economic freedom is linked to human freedom > People should decide how to spend their money; the state should not tax and spend on their behalf > Division of labour increases efficiency and wealth for all

Question 42

What does modern liberalism think about the economy?

Answer 42

Support for Keynesian methods to ensure full employment > State has a role in regulating the economy > Capitalist system prone to crises that require state intervention

Question 43

What are Keynesian methods in the economy?

Answer 43

Economic theory supported by modern liberals challenging classical laissez-faire approaches > Markets are not always self-correcting; government intervention is necessary to maintain full employment > Governments should increase spending in economic downturns, creating demand, stimulating production and reducing unemployment > During upturns, the government should reduce spending and raise taxes to prevent inflation

Question 44

What is free market capitalism?

Answer 44

Private ownership of production, minimal state intervention > Prices, production and distribution determined by market forces of supply and demand

Question 45

What do modern liberals think about taxation and social justice in the economy?

Answer 45

Some income redistribution required for social justice > Higher taxation justified to provide public services and benefits > Freedom requires being free from hunger, unemployment, and homelessness

Question 46

What type of freedom do classical liberals believe in?

Answer 46

Negative freedom

Question 47

What type of freedom do modern liberals believe in?

Answer 47

Positive freedom

Question 48

What is negative freedom?

Answer 48

Freedom comes from being left alone to do your own thing > The state will not interfere in what you are doing Harm principle (Mill): individuals should be free to do anything except harm others

Question 49

What is positive freedom?

Answer 49

Freedom requires resources and capabilities, not just absence of interference > Education enhances freedom by expanding life choices > Good health allows independence and freedom in other ways > Freedom from poverty required for meaningful choice

Question 50

What are some examples of negative freedoms?

Answer 50

Freedom of property, religion, conscience, speech/expression, assembly, association

Question 51

What are some examples of positive freedoms?

Answer 51

Free universal education Access to medical treatment Protection from poverty and homelessness RIght to employment Access to housing

Question 52

What is the link between modern liberal's support for positive freedoms, and their aversion to the free market?

Answer 52

The free market does not guarantee human freedom without these supports

Question 53

What do classical liberals believe in terms of foundational and formal equality, as well as equality of opportunity/outcome?

Answer 53

- Foundational equality: all human beings are born equal with the same natural rights - Formal equality: the law applies equally to all and does not offer special advantages - Limited view of equality of opportunity: once legal obstacles are removed, there is equal opportunity - Rejection of equality of outcome as incompatible with the free market

Question 54

What are the key tensions between the strands of liberalism, in terms of the role of the state, the nature of freedom, the view on individualism and the economic approach?

Answer 54

Role of the state: minimal vs. enabling Nature of freedom: negative vs. positive View of individualism: egoistical vs. developmental Economic approach: laissez-faire vs. regulated (Keynesianism)

Question 55

What are the key tensions between the strands of liberalism, in terms of type of equality, distribution of resources and democracy?

Answer 55

Equality: formal vs. formal AND substantive Distribution of resources: market-based vs. some redistribution Democracy: skepticism vs. support

Question 56

What are the key tensions between the strands in terms of property rights?

Answer 56

Property rights: absolute vs. limited by social needs

Question 57

What is a minimal state?

Answer 57

Highly limited approach to state power and functions > Government protects rights, maintains law and order, defends threats via the military, enforces contracts and rights, and provides a stable currency.

Question 58

What is an enabling state?

Answer 58

Expansive view of government's proper role > Provides essential services that enable individuals to develop their potential > Uses fiscal and monetary policy (Keynesian economics) to manage the economy and maintain full employment (regulates the market, redistributes wealth)

Question 59

What is distributive justice?

Answer 59

Fair allocation of benefits and burdens within a society, considering factors like needs, contributions, and the broader societal good, aiming for equitable distribution of resources, opportunities and goods

Question 60

Why did classical liberalism emerge?

Answer 60

Eariy liberals who believed that individual freedom would be best achieved with a state playing a minimal role.

Question 61

Why did modern liberalism emerge?

Answer 61

Emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led too many individuals not being free. Freedom could no longer simply be defined as 'being left alone'.