Life Span Human Development Definitions Chapters 1-16 Flashcards
(247 cards)
0
Q
Nature-Nurture Issue
A
The degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experiential or environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are
1
Q
Human development
A
The multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time.
2
Q
Continuity-Discontinuity Issue
A
Whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)
3
Q
Universal Versus Context-Specific Development Issue
A
Whether there is just one path of development or several paths
4
Q
Biopsychosocial Framework
A
A useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human development
5
Q
Neuroscience
A
The study of brain and nervous system, especially in terms of brain behavior relationships
6
Q
Theory
A
An organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development
7
Q
Psychodynamic Theories
A
Theories proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages
8
Q
Psychosocial Theory
A
Erikson’s proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands
9
Q
Epigenetic Principle
A
In Erikson’s theory, the idea that each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular importance
10
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
Learning paradigm in which the consequences of a behavior determine whether a behavior is repeated in the future
11
Q
Reinforcement
A
A consequence that increase the future likelihood if the behavior that it follows
12
Q
Punishment
A
A consequence that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows
13
Q
Imitation or Observational Learning
A
Learning that occurs by simply watching how others behave
14
Q
Self-Efficacy
A
People’s beliefs about their own abilities and talents
15
Q
Information-Processing Theory
A
Theory proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software
16
Q
Ecological Theory
A
Theory based on idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental context in which a person develops
17
Q
Microsystem
A
The people and objects in an individual’s immediate environment
18
Q
Mesosystem
A
Provides connections across Microsystems
19
Q
Exosystem
A
Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but still influence development
20
Q
Macrosystem
A
The cultures and subcultures in which the Microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded
21
Q
Competence
A
A person’s abilities
22
Q
Environmental Press
A
Demands put on people by the environment
23
Q
Life-Span Perspective
A
View that human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework
24
Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) model
Model in which three processes (selection, optimization, and compensation) form a system of behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging
25
Life-course perspective
Description of how various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts
26
Systematic Observation
Watching people and carefully recording what they do or say
27
Naturalistic Observation
Technique in which people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation
28
Structured observations
Technique in which a researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest
29
Self-reports
People's answers to questions about the topic of interest
30
Reliability
Extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic
31
Validity
Extent to which a measure actually assesses what researchers think it does
32
Populations
Broad groups of people that are of interest to researchers
33
Sample
A subset of population
34
Correlational Study
Investigation looking at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world
35
Correlation Coefficient
An expression of the strength and direction of a relation between two variables
36
Experiment
A systematic way of manipulating the key factor(s) that investigator thinks causes a particular behavior
37
Independent Variable
The factor being manipulated
38
Dependent Variable
The behavior being observed
39
Qualitative Reasearch
Method that involves gaining in-depth understanding of human behavior and what governs it
40
Longitudinal Study
Longitudinal study research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives
41
Cross-sectional study
Study in which developmental differences are identified by testing people of different ages
42
Cohort effects
Problem with cross-sectional designs in which differences between age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as from developmental processes
43
Sequential design
developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
44
Meta-analysis
a tool that enables researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables
45
Chromosomes
threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material
46
Autosomes
first 22 pairs of chromosomes
47
Sex Chromosomes
23rd pair of chromosomes; these determine the sex of the child
48
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity
49
Gene
group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions
50
Genotype
person's hereditary makeup
51
Phenotype
physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interactions between one's gene's and the environment
52
Alleles
variations of genes
53
Homozygous
when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the same
54
Heterozygous
when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes differ from each other
55
Dominant
form of an allele whose chemical instructions are followed
56
Recessive
allele whose instructions are ignored in the presence of a dominant allele
57
Incomplete dominace
situation in which one allele does not dominate another completely
58
Sickle-Cell trait
disorder in which individuals show signs of mild anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele
59
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme
60
Huntington's Disease
progressive and fatal type of dementia caused by dominant alleles
61
Behavioral Genetics
the branch of genetics that studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychological traits
62
Polygenic Inheritance
when phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes
63
Heritability Coefficient
a measure (derived from a correlation coefficient) of the extent to which a trait or characteristic is inherited
64
Niche-Picking
process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one's genetic makeup
65
Nonshared Environmental Influences
forces within a family that make siblings different from one another
66
Prenatal Development
the many changes that turns a fertilized egg into a newborn human
67
In Vitro Fertilization
process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman's uterus
68
Eugenics
effort to improve the human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by society mate and pass along their genes
69
Zygote
fertilized egg
70
Implantation
step in which the zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the woman's blood vessel
71
Germ Disc
small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will eventually develop into a baby
72
Placenta
structure through which nutrients and waste are exchanged between the mother and the developing child
73
Embryo
term given to zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall
74
Ectoderm
outer layer of the embryo, which will become the hair, the outer layer of skin, and the nervous system
75
Mesoderm
middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the muscle, bones, and circulatory system
76
Endoderm
inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the lungs and digestive system
77
Period of the fetus
longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception
78
Cerebral Cortex
wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
79
Vernix
substance that protects the fetus's skin during development
80
Age of Viablility
age at which a fetus can survive because most of its bodily system function adequately; typically at 7 months after conception
81
Spina Bifida
disorder in which the embryo's neural tube does not close properly
82
Stress
physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging conditions
83
Teratogen
an agent that causes abnormal parental development
84
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorder (FASD)
disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant
85
Ultrasound
prenatal diagnostic technique that uses sound waves to generate an image of the fetus
86
Amniocentesis
prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through the mother's abdomen
87
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion
88
Fetal Medicine
field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth
89
Crowning
appearance of the top of the baby's head during labor
90
Hypoxia
a birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen
91
Cesarean section (C-section)
Surgical removal of infant from the uterus through an incision made in the mother's abdomen
92
Preterm (premature)
Babies born before the 36th week after conception
93
Low birth weight
Newborns who weigh less than 2,500 grams (5 pounds)
94
Very low birth weight
Newborns who weigh less than 1,500 grams (3 pounds)
95
Extremely low birth weight
Newborns who weigh less than 1,000 grams (2 pounds)
96
Infant mortality
The number of infants out of 1,000 births who die before their first birthday
97
Reflexes
Unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation
98
Alert inactivity
State in which a baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment
99
Waking activity
State in which a baby's eyes are open but seem unfocused while the arms or legs move in burst of uncoordinated motion
100
Crying
State in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement
101
Sleeping
State in which a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly; the eyes are closed throughout
102
Basic cry
Cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired
103
Mad cry
More intense version of basic cry
104
Pain cry
Cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
105
Irregular or rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
Irregular sleep in which an infant's eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active
106
Regular (nonREM) sleep
Sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
107
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
When a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason
108
Temperament
Consistent style or pattern of behavior
| Combination of environmental forces, reaction to the content
109
Malnourished
Being small for one's age because of inadequate nutrition
110
Neuron
Basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
111
Cell body
Center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
112
Dendrite
End of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches
113
Axon
Tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
114
Terminal buttons
Small knots at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
115
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released by terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other
116
Cerebral cortex
Wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
117
Hemispheres
Right and left halves of the cortex
118
Corpus callosum
Thick bundle of neurons that connect the two hemispheres
119
Frontal cortex
Brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
120
Neural plate
Flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord
121
Myelin
Fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly
122
Synaptic pruning
Gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
123
Electroencephalography
the study of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are placed on the sclap
124
Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI)
method of studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood flow in the brain
125
Experience-Expectant growth
process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans
126
Experience-Dependent growth
process by which an individual's unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and organization
127
Motor skills
coordinated movements of muscles and limbs
128
Locomote
ability to move around in the world
129
Fine motor skills
motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects
130
Toddling
early, unsteady form of walking done by infants
131
Toddlers
young children who have just learned to walk
132
Dynamic system theory
theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
133
Differentiation
distinguishing and mastering individual motions
134
Integration
linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
135
Perception
processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are result of physical stimulation
136
Visual acuity
smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably
137
Cones
specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color
138
Visual Cliff
glass-covered platform that appears to have a "shallow", and a "deep" side; used to study infants' depth perception
139
Kinetic cues
cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
140
Visual expansion
kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on the fact that an object fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer
141
Motion Parallax
kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than do distant objects
142
Retinal disparity
way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
143
Pictorial cues
cues to depth perception that are used to convey depth in drawings and paintings
144
Linear Perspective
a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
145
Texture Gradient
Perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distinct objects
146
Intersensory redundancy
infants' sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes
147
Theory of mind
ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs,intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behaviour
148
Scheme
according to Piaget, a mental structure that organizes information and regulates behavior.
149
Assimilation
According to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows
150
Accommodation
According to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge
151
Equilibration
According to Piaget, a process by which children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs
152
Sensorimotor period
First of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years
153
Object permanence
Understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself
154
Egocentrism
Difficulty in seeing in the world from another's point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period
155
Animism
Crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings
156
Centration
According to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
157
Core knowledge hypothesis
Infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences
158
Teleological explanation
Children's belief that living things and parts of living things exist for a purpose
159
Essentialism
Children's belief that all living things have an essence that can't be seen but gives a living thing it's identity
160
Mental hardware
Mental and neural structures that are built in and that allow the mind to operate
161
Mental software
Mental "programs" that are the basis for performing particular tasks
162
Attention
Processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual
163
Orienting response
An individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur
164
Habituation
Becoming unresponsive to stimulus that is presented repeatedly
165
Classical conditioning
A form of learning that involves paring a neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another stimulus
166
Operant conditioning
View of learning, proposed by B.F. Skinner, that emphasize reward and punishment
167
Autobiographical memory
Memories of the significant events and experiences of one's own life
168
One-to-one principle
Counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted
169
Stable-order principle
Counting principle that states that number names must always be counted in the same order
170
Cardinality principle
Counting principle that the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted
171
Intersubjectivity
Mutual, shared understanding among participants in an activity
172
Guided participation
Children's involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled, typically producing cognitive growth
173
Zone of proximal development
Difference between what children can do with assistance an what they can do alone
174
Scaffolding
A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner's needs
175
Private speech
A child's comments that are not intended for others but designed instead to help regulate the child's own behavior
176
Phonemes
Unique sounds used to create words; the basic building blocks of language
177
Infant-directed speech
Speech that adults use with infants that is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume; it is thought to aid language acquisition
178
Cooing
Early vowel-like sounds that babies produce
179
Babbling
Speechlike sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations; common at about 6 months
180
Fast mapping
A child's connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word
181
Underextension
When children define words more narrowly than adults do
182
Overextension
When children define words more broadly than adults do
183
Phonological memory
Ability to remember speech sounds briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary
184
Referential style
Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons, or actions
185
Expressive style
Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word.
186
Telegraphic speech
Speech used by young children that contains only the words necessary to convey a message
187
Grammatical morphemes
Words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical
188
Overregularization
Grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule
189
Hope
According to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
190
Will
According to Erikson, a young child's understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally; this occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance
191
Purpose
According to Erikson, balance between Individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others
192
Evolutionary psychology
Theoretical view that many human behaviors represents successful adaptations to the environment
193
Attachment
Enduring socioemotional relationship between infants and their caregivers
194
Secure attachment
Relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
195
Avoidant attachment
Relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation
196
Resistant attachment
Relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console
197
Disorganized (disoriented) attachment
Relationship in which infants don't seem to understand what's happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers
198
Internal working model
Infant's understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child's life
199
Basic emotions
Emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and overt behavior
200
Social smiles
Smile that infants produce when they see a human face
201
Stranger wariness
First distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults
202
Social referencing
Behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation
203
Parallel play
When children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing
204
Simple social play
Play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other
205
Cooperative play
Play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age
206
Enabling actions
Individuals' actions and remarks that tend to support other and sustain the interaction
207
Constricting actions
Interaction in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other
208
Prosocial behavior
Any behavior that benefits another person
209
Altruism
Prosocial behavior such as helping sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior
210
Empathy
Experiencing another person's feelings
211
Social role
Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people
212
Gender stereotypes
Beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true
213
Relational aggression
Aggression used to hurt others by understanding their social relationships
214
Gender identity
Sense of oneself as male or female
215
Gender labeling
Young children's understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming themselves accordingly
216
Gender stability
Understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women
217
Gender constancy
Understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes
218
Gender-schema theory
Theory that states children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine
219
Mental operations
Cognitive actions that can be performed on objects or ideas
220
Deductive reasoning
Drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal-operational thought
221
Working memory
Type of memory in which a small number if items can be stored briefly
222
Long-term memory
Permanent storehouse for memories that has unlimited capacity
223
Organization
As applied to children's memory, a strategy in which information to be remembered is structured so that related information is placed together
224
Elaboration
Memory strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable
225
Metamemory
Person's informal understanding of memory; includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies
226
Metacognitive knowledge
A person's knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes
227
Cognitive self-regulation
Skill at identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and accurate monitoring; a characteristic of successful students
228
Psychometricians
Psychologists who specialize in measuring psychological traits such as intelligence and personality
229
Emotional intelligence
Ability to use one's own and others' emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily
230
Analytic ability
In Sternberg's theory of intelligence, the ability to analyze problems and generate different solutions
231
Creative ability
In Sternberg's theory of intelligence, the ability to deal adaptively with novel situations and problems
232
Practical ability
In Sternberg's theory of intelligence, the ability to know which problem solutions are likely to work
233
Mental age (ma)
In intelligence testing, a measure of children's performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child's
234
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Mathematical representation of how a person scores on an intelligence test in relation I how other people of the same age score
235
Culture-fair intelligence tests
Intelligence tests devised using items common to many cultures
236
Stereotype threat
An evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong
237
Convergent thinking
Using information to arrive at one standard and correct answer
238
Divergent thinking
Thinking in novel and unusual directions
239
Intellectual disability
Substantially below average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before the age of 18
240
Learning disability
When a child with normal intelligence has difficulty mastering at least one academic subject
241
Word recognition
The process of identifying a unique pattern of letters
242
Comprehension
The process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words
243
Phonological awareness
The ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters
244
Knowledge-telling strategy
Writing down information as it is retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers
245
Knowledge-transforming strategy
Deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point
246
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from detailed facts to general principle
