Lifespan Flashcards
Genotype
Refers to a person’s genetic make up;
Phenotype
Refers to observable characteristics, which are due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
Described development as involving interactions btwn the indiv. & his/her context or environment.
This model distinguishes btwn 5 environmental systems or levels:
- *Microsystem:* The childs immediate env. & includes face-to-face rel. w/home, school & neighborhood.
- *Mesosystem:* Consists of interactions btwn the components of thr micorosystem (e.g., parents involvement in childs school exp. & interactions btwn the childs church & community).
- *Exosystem:* Consists of elements in the broader env. that affect the childs immediate env. & social setting that indirectly affect the childs devel. (e.g, the parents job, school board, media, local industry, comminity agency).
- *Macrosystem:* Includes the cultural beliefs, & practices, economic conditions, politics, values, laws, customs, etc. of the childs culture.
- *Chronosystem:* Consists of env. events that occur over an indiv lifespan & impact the indiv. in ways that depend on the indiv. circumstances & devel. stage.
Rutter’s Indicators
Argued that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concluded that the following 6 family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology:
- Severe marital discord (Greatest risk factors)
- Low SES,
- Overcrowding or large family size,
- Parental criminality,
- Maternal psychopathology,
- The placement of a child outside the home/Foster care
Resilience (Werner and Smith)
Longitudinal research found that exposure to early (prenatal & perinatal) stress may be reduced when the baby:
- experiences fewer stressors following birth,
- exhibits good communication skills & social responsiveness, and
- receives stable support from a parent or other caregiver
Critical and Sensitive Periods
- Critical period is a time during which an organism is especially susceptible to positive & negative environmental influences.
- Sensitive period is more flexible than a critical period and is not limited to a specific chronological age.
Some aspects of human development may depend on critical periods, but,
for many human characteristics & behaviors, sensitive periods are probably more applicable.
Prenatal Development
3 stages of prenatal development:
- Germinal Stage: (Fertilized ovum = zygote) in 1st 2 weeks.
- Embryonic Stage: Begining of 3rd week to 8th week.
- Fetal Stage: Begins at onset of 9th week & goes till birth.
Birth defects are caused by chromosomal D/O’s, exposure to tetatrogens & poor maternal health.
Autosomal Disorders
When a D/O is carried on an autosome (22 pairs of chromosomes). All human cells (except sperm & ovum) contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
- 22 pairs are autosomes
- 23rd pair contains the sex chromosomes
- Females = XX
- Males = XY
Sex Linked Disorders
When a D/O is carried on sex chromosomes
Ex: Klienfelter Syndrome & Turner Syndrome
Disorders due to Dominant & Recessive Genes
Disorders related to chromosomes are the result of inheritance of a single dominant or 2 recessive genes or a chromosomal abnormality.
-
Dominant Gene D/O’s: Due to the inheritance of a single dominant gene from 1 parent.
- Huntington’s Disease: An autosomal dominant gene disorder bc the gene responsible is located on an autosome.
-
Recessive Gene D/O’s: Due to inheritance of a pair of recessive gene’s; 1 from each parent.
- Cystic Fibrosis
- Sickle-Cell
- Tay-Sachs
- PKU
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Autosomal recessive condition (Homozygous, 2 recessive genes); 1 recessive gene from each parent.
Caused by a pair of recessive genes & produces mental retardation unless the infant is placed on a diet low in phenylalanine soon after birth.
Phenylalanine an amino acid found in milk, eggs , bread can cause MR unless the infant is put on a special diet soon after birth.
Down Syndrome
Autosomal Disorder
Caused by an extra number of 21 chromosome.
It is characterized by mental retardation, retarded physical growth & motor development, distinctive physical characteristics, & increased susceptibility to Alzheimer’s dementia, leukemia, and heart defects.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Occurs in males & is due to the presence of 2 or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome (due to an abnormal level of sex chromosomes).
Males with this disorder have:
- A small penis & testes,
- Long legs & short trunk
- Develops breasts during puberty,
- Has limited interest in sexual activity,
- Often sterile, and
- May have learning disabilities & behavior problems
Turner Syndrome
Occurs in females when 1 X chromosome is missing or incomplete (due to abnorm # of sex chromosomes).
Charateristics include:
- Short stature
- Drooping Eyelids
- Webbed neck & other physical features
- Retarted/absent devel. of secondary sex charaterisitcs.
- May have hearing & vision problems & a learning disability
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Caused by a chromosomal deletion on the paternal side & includes:
- Some degree of MR
- Obese
- May exhibit OCD behaviors
Teratogens
Env. agents that adversely affect prenatal devel. & cause birth defects in the developing fetus & include:
- Drugs
- Alcohol: 2nd half of 1st trimester = Severe structural physical abnormalities. 2nd & 3rd trimester = Assoc w/ behavioral & psychological deficits
- Cocaine
- Chemicals
- Env. Hazards
- Pollution
- Radiation
- Certain maternal conditions
Exposure during 3-8 weeks (embryonic period) most likely to cause major structural abnormalities.
Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol during 1st Tirmester
Exposure during the 1st Trimester likely to produce severe physical defects.
Res. shows that alcohol exposure during the 2nd half of the 1at Trimester is assoc. w/ most severe physical defects:
- Low birth weight
- Smaller-than-normal head circumference
- Altered shape of eyes & lips
Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol during 3rd Tirmester
In the 3rd Trimester alcohol exposure can impact development of attention & other cognitive Fx’s
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects
Prenatal exposure to alcohol can produce a variety of physical, behavioral, & cognitive Sx’s that, in terms of severity, depend on the amount of alcohol consumed by the pregnant woman.
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Characterized by facial deformities, mental retardation, growth retardation, motor impairments, physical defects, CNS dysfx, LD’s and behavioral problems.
- Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE): are less severe and usually do not include facial deformities and mental retardation.
- The symptoms of both disorder are largely irreversible.
- Negative impact on the basal ganglia, hippocampus, frontal lobes, cerebellum, hypothalamus, corpus callosum
Maternal HIV
If Mom HIV+ the chances of transmitting it to her child is 35-60%, the risk is greatly reduced when she takes an anti-retroviral drug during pregnancy & delivery.
A minority of babies birn w/HIV devel. severe Sx’s in 1st month after birth, while the rest have a later appearance & slow progression of Sx’s
With Tx infants can survive to 8yrs and beyond
Infected children have delays in physical & cog. devel. & high rates of life-threatening opportunistic infections
Prenatal Exposure to Cocaine
Use of cocaine by a pregnant woman increases the risk for spontaneous abortion & stillbirth.
Infants born to cocaine users are at high risk for:
- SIDS,
- seizures,
- low birthweight, and
- reduced head circumference,
- often exhibit tremors,
- Irritable
- Difficult to soothe
- an exaggerated startle response; highly reactive
- a high-pitched cry, sleep and feeding difficulties, and
- developmental delays
- During the early school years these children have higher than norm rates of LD’s & behavior probs.
Malnutrition During Prenatal Development
Malnutrition during prenatal devel. is associated with:
- miscarriage,
- stillbirth, and
- low birth weight and
- may result in suppression of the immune system,
- Cog. deficits
- Weak immune system
- mental retardation, and
- Defects in structure of liver, pancrease & other organs
- other serious problems.
Severe malnutrition in the 3rd trimester (especially protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for the developing brain & can lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelinization, & neurotransmitter abnormalities.
Good nutrition after birth can reduce some of the negative effects
Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- Type of herpes virus*, infection during adulthood produces no or mild Sx’s, but infection during prenatal devel./birth can be life-threatening.
- 2nd most common cause of Mental Retardation after Down Syndrome & likely to cause cognitive impairments in hearing & Vision.*
Approx. 10% of infants infected w/CMV show Sx’s at birth & about 10-15% of infants who are asymptomatic at birth devel. Sx’s during 1sr few yrs of life.
Brain Development (Cerebral Cortex)
The cerebral cortex is largely undeveloped & least devel. part of brain at birth (25% of adult weight) but shows dramatic growth during the first 2 years of life (approx 80%) as the result of:
- an increase in the size of existing neurons,
- more extensive dendritic branching,& increasing myelinization.
Cerebral Cortex responsible for higher level cog. Fx, language, spatial skills & complex motor activities.
The frontal lobes continue to mature into adolescence and the early 20s.
Some neurogenesis (regeneration) occurs in adulthood, especially in hippocampus & brain also compensates for loss of neurons thru axon sprouting, dendrite branching & creation of new synapses
30 yrs of age the brain gradually starts to shrink as a result of loss of neurons & acceleration of brain loss after 60 yrs old in sensory & motor cortex.
Early Reflexes
Reflexes are unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment.
Early reflexes include:
- Babinksi reflex (toes fan out & upward when soles of the feet are tickled)
- Moro reflex (flings arms & legs outward & then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support)
- Rooting (Turn head in direction of touch applied to the cheek)
- Stepping: (Makes coordinated walking movements when held upright w/feet touching flat surface)
Babinski Reflex
Produced by tickling the middle of the sole of the infants feet.
Moro Reflex
Startle Response
Flings arms & legs outward & then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support (being dropped).
Rooting Reflex
Turn head in direction of touch applied to the cheek
Perception in Newborns (Vision, Audition, Pain)
Of the senses:
Vision: The least well developed at birth.
- At birth, the newborn sees at 20 feet what normal adults see at about 200-400 feet; w/in 2-5 days after birth infants pref. to look at human faces vs other objects.
- 1-2 mos. Prefer/can distinguish faces of mother over face of unfamiliar woman
- 1-6 mos. some degree of Depth Perception.
- About 6 months, the infant’s visual acuity is probably very close to that of a normal adult.
- Visual Stimuli: Newborns prefer to look at high-contrast patterns (e.g. a bold black-and-white checkerboard), and their preferences for more complex patterns increases with increasing age.
- Babies have some color vision by 2-3 months of age (red, green, blue & yellow)
Audition: Fetuses hear sounds in utero during the last months of devel.
- Newborns only slightly less sensitive to sound intensity than adults & soon after birth can distinguish the voices of the mother from a stranger.
- Auditory Localization: Ability to orient toward the direction of the sound is evident shortly after birth, but then disappears btwn 2-4 mos. & re-appears & improves rest of 1st yr.
- Can distinguish btwn different vowel sounds w/in a few days after birth.
- 2-3 mos. can distinguish btwn different consonant sounds
Pain: The research has confirmed that newborns are sensitive to pain.
- Ex: Male newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia often react w/a loud cry, a facial grimace, & an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, &muscle tension.
- There is evidence that exposure to severe pain as a newborn can impact later reactions (e.g., in some cases, can increase sensitivity to pain).
Visual Cues Infants use to percieve depth arise in a predictable sequence. Which is the last to develop?
Depth perception depends on devel. a sensitivity to 3 types of cues:
- Kinetic (Motion) Cues (1-3 mos)
- Binocular Cues (2-4 mos)
- Pictoral Cues (5 mos): Last to devel. & includes size, texture & shading.
Developmental Milestones
1-3 Months:
- Able to raise chin from Ground
- Turn head side to side
- 3rd mo. play w/hands & fingers & bring objects in hand to mouth
- 3-4 mos. Infant shows facial expressions interest, sadness, distress, disgust
4-6 Months:
- 4 mos. roll from abdomen to back
- 5 mos. sit on lap , reaches & grasps
- 6 mos. sit alone w/support & stand w/help
- 5-9 mos. 1st teeth appear
- 6-8 mos. Infant expresses emotions anger, joy, suprise & fear.
7-9 Months:
- Show increasingly good coordination
- 8-9 mos. sits alone w/out support & begins crawling & creeping
- 9-10 mos. pull self to standing by holding onto furniture.
10-12 Months:
- 10-11 mos. Stands alone & walks w/help
- 12 mos. Takes 1st steps alone, 1st/single word & walks while holds onto furniture
13-15 Months:
- 13-14 mos. Walks alone w/wide based gait
- 15 mos. creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously & uses up well
16-24 Months:
- 18 mos. 2 word phrases, walks independently, run clumsily, walk upstairs w/hand held, use a spoon
- 24 mos. Goes up & down stairs alone, kicks ball, turn pgs of book, multi-word phrases & 50% of kids use toilet during the day.
25-48 Months:
- 27 mos. vocab 300-400 words
- 30 mos. jumps w/both feet 7 has good hand-finger coordination
- 30-36 mos vocab more than doubles
- 36 mos. (3yrs) rides tricycle, dresses & undresses self w/simple clothes, usually completely toilet trained, speak short sentences
- 48 mos. exhibits a stable preference for R or L hand
Development of facial expressions in babies after birth
3-4 months of age infants express at least 4 emotions thru their facial expressions:
- Distress,
- Interest
- Sadness
- Disgust
By 6-8 Month 4 more emerge, Anger, Joy, Suprise & Fear
Physical Maturation in Adolescence
The onset of physical & sexual maturation is earlier for girls (Onset 10.5yrs; peak 12 yrs) than boys (onset13; peak 14-15 yrs).
Research comparing the effects of early vs late physical maturation during adolescence has found that early maturation has a number of different consequences for:
-
Boys: Benefits for boys such as higher levels of self-confidence, self-esteem, better adjustment, greater popularity with peers, & superior athletic skills.
- Late maturation assoc. w/lower levels of confidence & higher levels of attention seeking behavior.
- Girls: Early maturation is assoc. w/ greater popularity w/boys but also w/emotional instability, low self-esteem, alcohol & drug use & academic probs.
The + & - consequences diminish over time & usually no longer apparent in adulthood
Visual Changes in Adulthood
After age 65, most individuals experience visual changes that interfere with reading, driving, & other aspects of daily life.
- Presbyopia (loss of near vision, need bi-focals; approx 40 yrs old),
- common changes include loss of visual acuity,
- reduced perception of depth & color,
- increased light sensitivity & glare, and decreased ability to see in dim light
- deficits in visual search,
- Dynamic vision (perceiving the details of moving objects), and
- peed in processing what is seen.
Hearing & vision are the 1st senses to show age related declines.
Hearing: Hearing probs are more common & significant hearing loss doesn’t occur until age 75, but 1st sign of hearing loss is a decrease in ability to hear high frequencies around age 50.
Gender Differences in Motor Skills
Gender differences are apparent by early to middle childhood; girls are more physically mature than same age male peers.
- Girls are superior on tasks requiring fine motor skills, flexibility, agility & balance
- Boys are superior on tasks that depend on force & power
Differences become increasingly obvious during adolesc. w/boys excelling on most measures of motor ability.
Sexual Activity in Late Adulthood
The research has generally confirmed that sexual activity in mid-life & earlier is a good predictor of sexual activity in late adulthood.
Ex: Landau et al. (2007) found that sexually active adults 57 to 85 years of age reported a frequency of sexual activity similar to the frequency reported in an earlier study of adults ages 18 to 59.
However, their survey results also indicated that the number of older adults identifying themselves as “sexually active” decreased with increasing age.
Piaget’s Theory of Constructivism Theory part of cognitive Development & Adaptation
(Assimilation & Accommodation)
According to Piaget, cog. devel. occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy btwn the person’s current understanding of the world & reality (equilibration) is resolved through adaptation.
Adaptation involves building schemas as the result of direct interactions w/the env. & consists of 2 complementary processes:
- _Assimilation (Same Schemas):_ Incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas.
- _Accomodation (Change Schemas):_ Modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Ex: Child will attempt to understand the toy by assimilating it into current repertoire of schemas. Then as the child begins to recognize the toys unique properties they will accomodate (modify) the pre-existing schemas & as a result will devel. new ways of interacting w/the toy.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s cog. development involves 4 universal & invariant stages (Stupid Pigs Can’t Fly):
-
SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth to 2 years), the child learns about objects & other ppl thru the sensory info. they provide & the actions that can be performed on them.
- Object Permanence (Object Concept): Objects & ppl continue to exist even when out of sight.
- Predominate type of learning is Circular Reactions (actions perf. in order to reproduce events that occured by chance). There are 6 substages:
- Reflexive Schemas (Brith-1m):Involuntary responses to stimuli (Ex: sucking)
- Primary Circular Reactions (1-4m): Simple motor habits, pleasurable actions on or near body (Ex: bring thumb to mouth; thumb sucking)
- Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8m): Attempt to reproduce pleasurable actions in env. involving other ppl or objects (Ex: shake a rattle).
- Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12m): Combo of secondary w/more complex action sequences (Ex: uncover object then grasp).
- Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18m): Deliberately vary an action pattern to discover the consequences & see what happens (Ex: Drop ball from diff heights).
-
Mental Representations (18-24m): Can solve probs. using (symbolic) representational thought.
- Symbolic Thought: The ability to form internal representations of absent objects & past events & anticipate consequences of actions. Provides the basis for the preop. stage.
-
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (ages 2 to 7) Key accomplishment is the devel. of the symbolic (semiotic) Fx, once a child acquires lang. they are able to use symbols (words/picts) tp represent objects; symbolic representation. Which is an extension of representational thought & permits the child to learn through the use of language, mental images, & other symbols. Most active stage.
- Egocentrism: Assume everyone else sees things from the same viewpoint as they do; inability to separate their perspective from others.
- Transductive (pre-causal) Reasoning: Incomplete understanding of cause & effect.
- Magical Thinking: Belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur.
- Animism: The belief that inannimate objects have lifelike charateristics.
- Limitations of this stage include centration (The tendency to focus on one aspect of an object/situation while ignoring all other aspects) & Irreversibility (Lack of understanding that operations/processes can be reversed).
-
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (ages 7 to 11) Child is able to see things from a different point ov view & imagine events that occur outside own lives. Are capable of mental operations, which are logical rules for transforming & manipulating info. As a result, they are able to classify in more sophisticated ways, seriate, understand part-whole relationships in relational terms, & conserve.
- Conservation: Ability to understand that the physical charateristics of an object remain the same even when the otward appearance of the object changes.
- The operations of these 2 permot conservation:
- Decentration: The child is able to consider more than 1 charateristic of an object at a time.
- Reversibility: The ability to recognize that processes can be reversed.
- Depends on the operations of reversibility & decentration, w/conservation of number occurring first, followed by conservation of liquid, length, weight, & then displacement volume
-
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (age 11+) is able to think abstractly and is capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
- Indiv. in this stage are capable of:
- Hypothetico-deductive Reasoning: Ability to test hypothesis by varying one aspect of the situation at a time while holding all other aspects constant.
- Propositional Reasoning: The ability to eval. the logic of propositins or verbal statements w/out a concrete example; when certain assumptions are true certain conclusions must also be true.
- Adolescent Egocentrism: Characteristics include the:
- Imaginary audience: Belief that one is always the center of attention.
- Personal fable: Belief that one is unique & not subject to natural laws that govern others.
- Indiv. in this stage are capable of:
Object Permanence
According to Piaget, an important accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence (the “object concept”), which allows the child to recognize that objects and people continue to exist when they are out of sight
Magical Thinking
As described by Piaget, magical thinking is characteristic of the preoperational stage of cognitive development and is the belief that thinking about something will actually cause it to occur
Conservation
As defined by Piaget, conservation is the ability to understand that the physical characteristics of an object remain the same, even when the outward appearance of that object changes. Conservation depends on the operations of reversibility and decentration and develops gradually during the concrete operational stage, with conservation of number occurring first, followed by conservation of liquid, length, weight, and then displacement volume
Adolescent Egocentrism (Elkind)
Adolescent egocentrism appears at the beginning of the formal operational stage. As defined by Elkind, its characteristics include:
- Personal fable: Belief that one is unique & not subject to natural laws that govern others.
- Imaginary audience: Belief that one is always the center of attention.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Zone of Proximal Development/Scaffolding)
Proposes that cog. devel. is always:
- First, interpersonal (when the child interacts w/an adult or other teacher) & then
- Intrapersonal (when the child internalizes what he/she has learned).
Cog. devel. is facilitated when instruction falls w/in the child’s:
-
Zone of Proximal Development: Refers to the discrepancy btwn a child’s current devel. level (the level at which the child can Fx independently” & the level of devel. that is just beyond his or her current level). What the child can currently accomplish alone & what can do w/assistance of others.
- Most effective when it emphasizes prompts & feedback vs correct answers & solutions
- Scaffolding: Instruction, assistance, & support by teachers, parents, & others w/in the childs zone of proximal devel. can get the child to the level of devel. that is just beyod their current level. This can be reached when an adult or more experienced peer provides appropriate assistance.
- Symbolic Play: Provides children w/a ZPD that enables them to practice behaviors in a situation that req. less precision & accuracy than would be req. in reality.
Human Memory
Nativist Approach to Language Acquisition (Chomsky)
Proposes that ppl have an innate capacity for acquiring language & emphasize universal patterns of language devel./acquisition.
Stresses the role of:
- Biological mechanisms (e.g. Chomsky’s language acquisition device - LAD)
- LAD is a brain mechanism that enables children to acquire lang. just by being exposed to it.
- Universal patterns of development
Studies found thatchildren master the basics of lang. btwn 4-6 yrs. old regardless of complexity of native language, cultures & stages.
Language Development
Surface vs. Deep Structure
- Surface Structure: Refers to the org. of words & phrases in a sentence.
- Deep Structure: Refers to the underlying meaning of a sentence.
Stages of Language Acquisition (Crying, Babbling, First Words, Telegraphic Speech)
Language development occurs in a predictable sequence of stages.
-
Crying: Infants initially produce 3 distinct patterns of crying:
- A basic (hunger) cry,
- An anger cry, and
- A pain cry.
-
Babbling: Begins at about 3-6 mos. of age & consists of the repetition of simple consonant & vowel sounds (e.g. “bi-bi-bi”).
- Early babbling includes sounds from all languages; but, between 8-9 mos. of age, babies narrow their repertoire of sounds to those of their native language.
-
1st Words: Most infants speak their 1st word btwn the ages of 10 & 15 mos. &, by 18 months, speak about 50 words.
- 1st words are most often nominals, or labels for objects, people, or events, although action words, modifiers, & personal-social words (e.g., please) also occur.
- Holophrases: Btwn 12-24 mos. babies use single words that express an entire idea
-
Telegraphic Speech: 18-24 mos. of age, children exhibit telegraphic speech i.e., they string 2 or more words together to make a sentence (e.g., “me go” or “more juice).
- While these phrases initially contain only nouns, verbs, & adjectives, by 27 months, prepositions and pronouns have been added.
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
(Sapir-Worf Hypothesis) Language determines nature of thoughts & predicts that cultures have different ways of thinking about the world bc have a different language.
The structure & lexicon of language influences how the individual percieves, interprets & reacts to the world.
Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development
Theory of personality devel. proposes that devel. involves 5 invariant stages in which the Id’s libido is focused on diff. parts of the body: (Orangutangs Always Play w/Little Gorillas).
_1. Oral (birth - 1yr.)_ Focus on mouth sensation & stimulation/Breastfeeding (Erogenous Zone);
- Primary conflict = Weaning
- Fixation results in:
- Dependence
- Passivity
- Gulibility
- Sarcasm
- Orally focused habits (smoking, nailbitting, overeating)
- Erickson = Trust vs. Mistrust
_2. Anal (1-3 yrs)_ Main issue control of bodily waste & focus on Bowel/Bladder (Elimination);
- Primary conflict = Issues related to Potty Training\
- Fixation results in:
- Anal retentivness: (Stingy, selfish, OCD behaviors)
- Anal explosiveness: (Cruelty, destructive, messy)
- Erickson = Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
_3. Phallic (3-6 yrs)_ Focus on genitals;
- Primary Task: Resolution of Oedipal/Electra Complex (Desire for opposite sex parent & rival w/same sex parent)
- Successful outcome = Success Id w/same sex parent & devel superego
- Fixation results in:
- Phallic character
- Sexual explotation of others
- Erickson = Initiative vs. Guilt
_4. Latency (6-12 yrs.)_ Libidinal energy id diffuse rather than focused on 1 part of the body. Dormant sexual feelings.
- Primary conflict = Devel. social skills vs. achieve sexual gratification (Fixation)
- Erickson = Industry vs. Inferiority
_5. Genital (12 yrs. +)_ Libido center on genitals again.
- Primary conflict - Sexual desire blended w/affection to produce mature sexual relationship
- Erickson = ID vs. Role Confusion
He belived the personality is well-established by 5-6 yrs.
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that the individual faces 8 different psychosocial crises at different points throughout the life span that must be approp. resolved in order for healthy growth & maturation to occur. These are:
-
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth-2yrs): Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, & affection.
- A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
- Freud = Oral
-
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 yrs): Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills & a sense of independence.
- Success leads to feelings of autonomy,
- Failure results in feelings of shame & doubt.
- Freud = Anal
-
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5yrs): Children need to begin asserting control & power over the environment.
- Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
- Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
- Characterized by increasing locomotion, imagination, curiosity & exploration.
- Freud = Phallic
-
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12yrs): Children need to cope w/new social & academic demands.
- Success leads to a sense of competence,
- Failure results in feelings of inferiority.
- Freud = Latency
-
Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-19yrs): Teens need to develop a sense of self & personal identity.
- Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself,
- Failure leads to role confusion & a weak sense of self.
- Freud = Genital
-
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-39yrs): Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships w/other people.
- Success leads to strong relationships,
- Failure results in loneliness & isolation.
-
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-64yrs): Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other ppl.
- Success leads to feelings of usefulness & accomplishment
- Failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
-
Integrity vs. Despair (65+ yrs): Older adults need to look back on life & feel a sense of fulfillment.
- Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom
- Failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Parenting Styles (Baumrind)
Framework for understanding the impact of parenting on development. Distinguish btwn 4 parenting styles that reflect various combos of:
- Responsivity - Acceptance & warmth
- Demandingness - Control
The style is predicitive of specific personality & behavioral outcomes for children & adolesc.
4 Parenting Styles:
-
Authoritarian (High Demand, Low Responsivity): Parents are restrictive, directive & punitive. They rigidly enforce but do not explain rules & regukarky express anger. Impose absolute standards of control, stress obideience & are willing to use force to obtain compliance.
- Child tends to be dependent, passive, submissive & has a ltd. sense of responsibility.
- Asian American adolesc. even do well w/this parenting style
-
Authoritative (Combo demand = responsivity; rational control): BEST OUTCOMES - Parents are acceping & responsive toward children, warm & nurturing, allow give & take discussions, combine rational control w/warmth, receptive, encourage independence & age approp. behaviro. Associated with the best outcomes for children & adolescents.
- Child is independent, greater self-confidence & self-reliance, assertive, achievement-orientation, social responsibility, high self-esteem & obtain higher grades in school.
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Permissive (Low Demand, High Responsivity): Parents provide few controls or demands & display moderate levels of warmth, non-punitive, child makes own decisions about chore completion, bedtime, etc.
- Child exhibits little self-reliance or self-control, immature, impulsive, dependent, easily frustrated, low academic achievement & independence.
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Rejecting-Neglecting (Low Demand, Low Responsivity): WORST OUTCOMES - Parents are rejecting & unresponsive, undemanding & uncontrolling, not strict, but not involved, pay little attention to child making them feel less important than other things in parents life, overtly hostile toward child.
- Child has low self-esteem, poor self-control, impulsive, moody & aggressive; at risk for antisocial behavior.
Identity Statuses (Marcia)
Marcia proposes that the achievement of an identity (including values, beliefs, & goals) involves 4 identity stages (statuses) that reflect the degree to which the individual has experienced an identity crisis & is committed to an identity:
- Diffusion: Indiv. not yet exp. an ID crisis or explored and alt. ID & not committed to a particular ID.
- Foreclosure: Indiv. not yet exp, and ID crisis but has chosen an ID (Career) that has been imposed/formulated by a parent or influential person.
- Moratorium: Indiv. is exp. an ID crisis & is actively exploring alt. ID (exhibits a high degree of confusion, discontent & rebellion)
- Achievement: Indiv. has resolved the ID crisis & is committed to an ID.
Stages of Grief (Kubler-Ross)
Kubler-Ross (1969) concluded that people progress through the following 5 stages of grief when facing their own death or other important loss:
- *Denial & Isolation:* (“No, this isn’t happening to me!”)
- *Anger* (“Why me?”);
- *Bargaining* (“Yes me, but not until my grandchild is born”);
- *Depression* (“Yes, me”);
- *Acceptance* (“My time is close and that’s alright”).
Stages do not necessarily occur in order & may be repeated.
Contact Comfort (Harlow)
Research by Harlow with rhesus monkeys indicated that an infant’s attachment to his/her mother is due, in part, to contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent
Signs of Attachment
Obvious signs of attachment to a primary caregiver are usually not apparent until about 6 months of age.
These include:
- Social Referencing (6 mos): Infant looks to caregiver to determine how to respond to a new or ambiguous situation (Visual Cliff).
- Separation Anxiety (6-8 mos.): Refers to sever distress that occurs when a child is separated from its primary caregiver.
- Stranger Anxiety (8-10 mos): Infant becomes vaery anxious & fearful in the presence of a stranger especially if the caregiver is not close or does not respond positivly to the stranger; continues till 2yrs then diminishes.
Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth)
Research using Ainsworth’s Strange Situation has revealed 4 patterns of attachment:
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Secure: Baby explores room, plays w/toys in room while mom is present.
- Baby becomes mildly upset when mom leaves
- Actively seeks contact w/mom when she resturns
- Mothers are emotionally sensitive & respond to babies cues.
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Insecure/Ambivalent: The baby alternates btwn clingy & resisting w/mom
- Baby becomes very disturbed when left alone w/stranger
- Baby is ambivalent when the mom returns & may become angry & resist her attempts for physical contact.
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Insecure (Anxious)/Avoidant: Baby has very little interaction w/mom
- Baby avoids or ignores mom when she returns
- Mothers are very impatient & unresponsive or privide too much stimulation.
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Disorganized/Disoriented: Baby exhibits fear of the caregiver, dazed & confused facial expression.
- Variety of disorg. attach behaviors
- 80% of babies mistreated by caregiver show this pattern
- Infants at increased risk for aggressive behavior probs in childhood.
Each pattern is associated w/different caregiver behaviors & different personality & behavioral outcomes.
Ex: Infants who exhibit a disorganized attachment pattern are at an increased risk for aggressive behavior problems in childhood.
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)
Research using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) has confirmed a relationship between parents’ own attachment experiences & the attachment patterns of their children.
3 types of adults:
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Autonomous: Give coherent descriptions of childhood relationship w/parents.
- Child of these adults have secure attachments in strange situation.
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Dismissing: Give positive descriptions of childhood relationships w/parents but descriptions are either not supported or contradicted by memories.
- Child of thes adults have avoidant attachment patterns in strange situation
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Preoccupied: Adult becomes very angry or confused when describe childhood relationship w/parents or seem passively preoccupied w/a paremt.
- Children of these adults exhibit resistant/ambivalent attachment patterns in strange situation.
Ex: Children of adults classified as dismissing on the AAI often exhibit an avoidant attachment pattern in the Strange Situation
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s cog.-devel. theory coincides w/moral devel. w/changes in logical reasoning & social perspective-taking.
3 levels that each include 2 stages: (“CHARLE”s)
1. Preconventional Level (4-9 yrs) Lowest level of moral reasoning & morality is not internalized.
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Punishment & Obedience Stage (C=Consequences): Reflects a desire to avoid punishment & stisfy ones own needs.
- Bad behavior is punished
- Good behavior is rewarded
- Shapes childs concept of good & bad; right & wrong.
- Instrumental Hedonism (H=Hedonism): Consequences still guide moral judement but are based on obtaining rewards & satisfying personal needs rather than avoid punishment.
2. Conventional Level (10-11 yrs): Charaterized by support for & adherence to existing social rules & laws. Internalization of morality in middle stage. (Ex: child applys moral standard but is provided by others; parents, gov. etc.)
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Good boy/good girl Stage (A=Approval): The right action is the one that is approved by others.
- Interpersonal expectations, rel., & conformity
- Valued foundations for moral devel. include trust, loyalty & care for others.
- Law & order orientation (R=Rules): Social system morality; moral judgements based on understanding of social system, justice, laws & duty est. by legit authorities.
3. Postconventional Level (Late Adolesc/Adulthood): Usually not reached; highest level moral standards fully internalized, based on abstract moral principles. Indiv. ID’s various alt. among moral choices, explores them & chooses their own personal set of moral beliefs (moral codes). Based on social contracts, democratically accepted laws & indiv. consciience.
- Morality of (Social) contract: (L=Laws) (individual rights, & democratically-accepted laws) The moraly right action is the one consistent w/democratically determined laws & can change if it interferes w/basic rights.
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Morality of individual (E=Ethics; principles of conscious): Indiv based moral judgements on universal human rights, following their indiv. consciences to resolve conflicts w/law.
- Moral judgements based on self-chosen principles considered universal in application.
