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Lifestyle, Health and Risk Flashcards

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1
Q

What is CVD?

A

Diseases of the heart and circulation

Main forms are:

Conorary heart disease
Stroke

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2
Q

Open circulatory systems

A

Occurs in insects and other animal groups

Blood circulates in a large
open space

Heart pumps blood into cavities surrounding organs

Substances diffuse between blood and cells

When heart relaxes, blood is drawn back from the cavities through small, valved, opening into the heart

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3
Q

Closed circulatory systems

A

Occurs in all vertebrates

Blood enclosed in blood vessels

High pressure as blood is forced along narrow tubes​

Blood travels faster, so more efficient at delivering substances

Blood leaves heart through arteries, into arterioles, then through capillaries.

Then back to the heart through venules to the veins

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4
Q

What is mass flow?

A

The movement of a fluid in one direction due to a difference in pressure, usually through a system of tube-like vessels.

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5
Q

What is the transport medium in animals?

A

Blood

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6
Q

Why is water a polar molecule?

A

It has an unevenly distributed electrical charge

The hydrogen end is slightly positive, as the 2 hydrogens are pushed towards each other

The oxygen end is slightly negative, as the electrons are more concentrated

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7
Q

Why is water dipole?

A

It has both negative and positive charges

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8
Q

Explain hydrogen bonding in water molecules.

A

Slightly positively charged ends are attracted to slightly negative ends of other water molecules.

Holds holds the water molecules together

It is liquid at room temperature

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9
Q

Why do many chemicals dissolve easily in water?

A

Water is dipole

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10
Q

Differences in the structure of arteries and veins

A

Arteries | Veins

Narrow lumen | Wide lumen

Thick walls | Thin walls

More collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres | Less collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres

No valves | Valves

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11
Q

What is it called when the heart contracts?

A

Systole

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12
Q

What is it called when the heart relaxes?

A

Diastole

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13
Q

Why does blood slow down in capillaries?

A

Narrow lumens cause more friction

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14
Q

What assists the flow of blood through veins?

A

Contraction of skeletal muscles during movement of limbs and breathing

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15
Q

Explain the cardiac cycle

A

Atrial systole

  1. Blood returns to heart due to skeletal muscle as you move and breathe
  2. Blood under low pressure flows through the pulmonary vein and vena cava into the left and right atria.
  3. As atria fill the AV valves open as pressure against them increases
  4. Blood flows into ventricles

Ventricular diastole

  1. Ventricles contract from base upwards –> increases pressure
  2. Pressure forces open semilunar valves
  3. Blood goes out through pulmonary arteries and aorta.
  4. Pressure of blood against AV valves closes them

Cardiac diastole

  1. Atria and ventricles contract
  2. Elastic recoil of relaxing walls lowers the pressure
  3. Blood under high pressure in the arteries is drawn back towards the ventricles closing the semilunar valves
  4. Coronary arteries fill
  5. Low pressure in atria draws blood into heart
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16
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Fatty deposits either block an artery or increase the chance of thrombosis.

Leads to coronary heart disease and strokes

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17
Q

What happens if atherosclerosis occurs in the coronary arteries?

A

Results in heart attack (myocardial infarction)

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18
Q

What happens if atherosclerosis occurs in the arteries supplying the brain?

A

Results in a stroke

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19
Q

What are platelets?

A

A type of blood cell without a nucleus

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20
Q

What is the process of atherosclerosis?

A
  1. Damaged endothelium
    can be a result of high blood pressure or toxins from cigarette smoke
  2. Causes an inflammatory response
  3. White blood cells leave blood vessel and move to artery wall
  4. Cholesterol +
    fatty deposit builds up atheroma forms
  5. Calcium salts and fibrous tissue build up
    results a plaque
  6. Artery wall loses some elasticity, it hardens
  7. Plaque narrows the lumen so it’s more difficult to pump blood
  8. Increases blood pressure (positive feedback - increasing pressure increases risk of more plaques forming
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21
Q

What is the process of blood clotting?

A
  1. Platelets stick to damaged wall and to each other, forming a platelet plug
  2. Thromboplastin released from damaged tissue and platelets catalyses the enzyme that changes the soluble prothrombin into thrombin
  3. Ca2+ and vitamin K from the plasma also present
  4. Triggers clotting cascade
  5. Thrombin catalyses soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin –> creates a mesh
  6. Fibrin mesh traps RBC forming a clot
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22
Q

How does blood clotting occur?

A

Usually the arteries are too smooth and substances repel platelets so platelets don’t stick to the endothelium.

However, if there is atherosclerosis, the endothelium is damaged and platelets contact with the damaged tissue and exposed collagen. Clotting cascade is triggered

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23
Q

What is angina?

A

Chest pain

Could be a result of narrowing coronary arteries

Usually occurs when cardiac muscle is working hard so needs to respire more.

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24
Q

Explain how atherosclerosis and CHD are linked

A

Narrow coronary arteries limits oxygen-rich blood supply to heart
Results in angina
Heart is forced to respire anaerobically –> lactic acid produced causes pain

If fatty plaque in coronary arteries ruptures, collagen is exposed
Leads to rapid clot formation
Blood supply may be completely blocked
Heart muscle doesn’t receive blood so is ischaemic (without blood)
If this happens for long, muscle cells will be permanently damaged –> heart attack

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25
Explain how atherosclerosis and stroke are linked
If supply of blood to brain is briefly interrupted then a mini-stroke will occur If a blood clot blocks an artery leading to the brain a full stroke will occur If brain cells are oxygen deprived for more than a few minutes, damage will be permanent
26
What is an aneurysm?
If an artery narrows and becomes less flexible, blood can build behind Artery then bulges as it fills with blood
27
Define risk
The probability of occurrence of some unwanted event or outcome
28
Why will people overestimate risks?
If the risk is : ``` involuntary (out of their control) not natural unfamiliar dreaded unfair very small ```
29
What is a Cohort study?
A study that follows a large group of people over time to see who develops the disease. Prospective - none of the participants have the disease at start Used to identify risk factors Can be very expensive
30
What is hypertension?
Elevated blood pressure
31
What is blood pressure?
A measure of hydrostatic force of blood against walls of a blood vessel
32
When is pressure in the arteries highest?
When the ventricles have contracted, This is systolic pressure
33
When is pressure in the arteries the lowest?
When the ventricles are relaxed, This is the diastolic pressure
34
What are the SI units for pressure?
Kilopascals (KPa)
35
What is peripheral resistance?
The contact between the blood and walls of the blood vessel causes friction.
36
What are the units in medical practice for pressure?
Millimetres of mercury, mmHG The number of millimetres the pressure will raise a column of mercury
37
What is oedema?
Fluid building up in tissues and causing swelling 1. At atrial end of capillaries, blood is under pressure 2. This forces fluid and small molecules in plasma through tiny gaps between cells of the wall into intercellular space 3. This is tissue fluid / interstitial fluid 4. Blood cells and larger plasma proteins stay inside capillaries 5. Tissue fluid drains into network of lymph capillaries which returns fluid to blood via lymph vessel which empties into vena cava 6. Oedema occurs when pressure is too high so more fluid is pushed out so it accumulates within tissue
38
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
Addition of water to split a molecule by breaking the glycosidic bond
39
What is a glycosidic bond?
Bond that joins two sugar units together
40
What are carbohydrates made up of?
C, H + O
41
What monomers form to make starch?
Amylose and amylopectin
42
What is starch?
Starch is a polysaccharide insoluble compact found ONLY in plant cells stores glucose
43
What is Cellulose?
Cellulose is a polysaccharide polymer of glucose weak hydrogen bonds cause molecule to be long and straight several cellulose molecules lie side by side to form microfibrils microfibrils strengthen plant cell walls found ONLY in plant cells
44
Glucose + Glucose → ?
Maltose + Water
45
Glucose + Fructose → ?
Sucrose + Water
46
What reaction occurs when two monosaccharides join to make a disaccharide?
Condensation reaction
47
What is a lipid?
Oils and fats
48
What's a triglycerides?
A group of lipids that consist of 1 molecule of glycerol with 3 fatty acids attached to it
49
What is a fatty acid molecule?
Long chain of carbon atoms with an acidic group (-COOH) at one end. Hydrogens are attached to the carbons.
50
What are phospholipids?
Like triglycerides but instead of 3 fatty acid chains, there are 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate group Cell membranes have a double layer of phospholipids
51
What happens when monosaccharides are eaten?
They are rapidly absorbed into blood causing a sharp rise in blood sugar.
52
Why does eating complex carbohydrates not cause drastic swings in blood sugar levels?
Polysaccharides and disaccharides (complex carbohydrates) have to be digested into monosaccharides before being absorbed, which takes time, so monosaccharides are released more slowly
53
Why are starch and glycogen good energy storage molecules?
Compact molecules so store lots of glucose monomers in a smaller space Insoluble so don't have an osmotic effect Too large to diffuse across cell membranes
54
What is starch made up of?
Amylose 1, 4 glycosidic bonds Spiral shape Amylopectin Straight chain 1,4 + 1, 6 glycosidic bonds
55
Define an open circulatory system
Define an open circulatory system
56
Define a closed circulatory system.
Blood is enclosed within vessels, generating higher pressure. Blood travels from arteries to arterioles to capillaries and returns by venules to veins.
57
Define a single circulatory system.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood out, oxygen diffuses into the blood.
58
Define a double circulatory system.
Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood round the body. Leads to a high metabolic rate.
59
What are the properties of water that make it a good transport medium?
Water is polar as hydrogen is slightly positive and oxygen is slightly negative, forming a dipole. Other polar substances, as well as ionic and hydrophilic substances, can easily dissolve in water. The specific heat capacity of water is very high to maintain homeostasis. Water has a high boiling point due to the hydrogen bonds.
60
Describe the structure of an artery.
Narrow lumen, thick walls, more collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres
61
Describe the structure of a vein.
Wide lumen, thin walls, valves to prevent backflow.
62
Describe the structure of a capillary
Endothelium is one cell thick, small lumen.
63
Describe atrial systole.
High pressure. Atria fill with blood from the Vena Cava/Pulmonary Vein. Atrioventricular valves open. Blood flows into the ventricles. Atria contract.
64
Describe ventricular systole.
High pressure. Ventricles fill with blood. Semi-lunar valves open, atrioventricular valves close. Ventricles contract.
65
Describe diastole.
Low pressure. Atria and ventricles relax. Semi-lunar valves close. Coronary arteries fill.
66
Describe some risk factors of CVD.
``` Age Heredity Physical environment Social environment Lifestyle Behavioural choices. ```
67
Define a case-control study.
A group with the disease and a control group are compared to work out risk factors.
68
What must a study have?
A clear aim A representative, large sample Controlled variables Valid and reliable results.
69
How are disaccharides formed?
Monosaccharides are joined together in a condensation reaction, producing water. They are joined by a glycosidic bond. They can be split by hydrolysis.
70
Describe the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons have the maximum number of hydrogens. They are straight, long chains with no double bonds. Solid at room temperature. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have double bonds, causing kinks in the chain, preventing it from packing closely together. Liquids at room temperature.
71
Describe low-density lipoproteins.
Triglycerides, proteins and cholesterol combined Transports cholesterol to body cells. May be deposited in artery walls. Excess LDLs overload membrane receptors.
72
Describe high-density lipoproteins.
Triglycerides with a higher percentage of protein and a lower percentage of cholesterol. Transports cholesterol from body tissue to the liver, where it can be broken down. Lowers blood cholesterol levels and reduces plaques formed from atherosclerosis.
73
Describe smoking as a risk factor.
Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin instead of oxygen, reducing the supply to cells, increasing heart rate. Nicotine produces adrenaline, increases heart rate, causes arteries and arterioles to construct, raises blood pressure. Chemicals in smoke damage endothelium of arteries. Linked with reduced HDL.
74
Describe the benefits of exercise.
Raises HDL cholesterol. Reduces development chance of Type 2 diabetes.
75
Describe the role of antioxidants.
Radicals are highly reactive and damage cells. Vitamins protect against this damage.
76
Describe salt as a risk factor.
Kidneys retain water, higher fluid levels leads to higher blood pressure.
77
Describe stress as a risk factor.
Releases adrenaline, arteries and arterioles constrict, raises blood pressure.
78
Describe alcohol as a risk factor.
Leads to an irregular heartbeat, direct tissue damage, increases risk of CVD. Moderate consumption linked with raised HDL levels.
79
Describe ACE inhibitors.
Antihypertensives. Reduces synthesis of angiotensin II which causes vasoconstriction. Reduces vasoconstriction which lowers blood pressure.
80
Describe calcium channel blockers.
Antihypertensives. Block calcium channels in muscle cells.
81
Describe diuretics.
Increases volume of urine. Decreases blood plasma volume and cardiac output, lowers blood pressure.
82
Describe statins.
Inhibits an enzyme producing LDLs.
83
Describe the use of aspirin as an anticoagulant.
Reduces the stickiness of platelets and the likelihood of clot formation.
84
Describe the use of warfarin as an anticoagulant.
Interrupts production of Vitamin K and the synthesis of factors involved in clotting.
85
Define basal metabolic rate.
The amount of energy used, per day, whilst at rest.
86
Glucose + Galactose → ?
Lactose + water
87
Describe obesity indicators.
BMI. | Waist to hip ratio.
88
What is the calculation for waist to hip ratio.
Waist circumference divided by hip circumference.
89
What is the calculation for BMI
Weight (kg) / Height (m2)

Biology (5 decks)

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