Ling 360: Midterm #1 Flashcards
(125 cards)
0
Q
Property vs transition theory
A
Property theory: modelling the nature of the language system that is to be acquired
Transition theory: modelling the change and developmental processes of language acquisition; can be general or look at a specific stage
1
Q
Theory
A
Abstract set of claims about the entities which are significant within the phenomenon under study, their relationships and the processes that bring about change (aims for description and explanation)
Should be testable and falsifiable
Engagement with other theories in the field
2
Q
Main criticisms of research for SLL
A
- too much focus on individual, not enough on sociocultural influences
- research too broad (Long)
3
Q
Chomsky’s argument about grammar and meaning?
A
They are independent
4
Q
Firths claim about grammar and lexis
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They are independent
5
Q
What is an imperfect reflection of competence and why?
A
Language performance data because language production has many mistakes
6
Q
Can language competence be studied directly? What tests can we use?
A
Only indirectly through sentence-completion, eye tracking and grammaticality judgement tests (sample sentences to which they say are grammatical or not)
7
Q
Firths opinion on performance and competence
A
He says they are not separate and the only option is to study language in use
8
Q
Formalist vs functionalist models of language
A
Formalist: language is made up of elements that are combined by sets of rules or procedures (semantics is part of this)
Functionalist: research and theorizing must start with the communicative functions of a language; trying to explain the structure of language as a reflection of meaning making
9
Q
Chomsky vs others (language target)
A
Chomsky: assumption that native speaker competence provides a single target for L2 development
Others: variability within native speaker language usage, no specific target (just lingua Franca)
10
Q
Interlanguage
A
L2 as its own language system, not a copy of the TL (in between in transition to native like target)
11
Q
skinner vs Chomsky in the language learning process
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Skinner: language taught to children using same learning mechanisms as learning anything else (aka behaviourist theory of learning by repetition and reward)
Chomsky: said human language too complex to be learning completely from performance data, we must have innate abilities (aka universal grammar)
12
Q
Universal grammar created by
A
Chomsky
13
Q
Modular vs unitary views of cognition
A
Modular: bundles of modules that are responsible for different types of knowledge ex: language module (Chomsky)
Unitary: brain is a single flexible organism with one general set of procedures for learning and storing knowledge (Piaget)
14
Q
The four different possibilities of distinctive learning mechanisms exist
A
1- make L2 learning possible in the same way that L1 learning is done (Krashen in the 1970s)
2- after acquiring the L1 in early childhood this mechanism stops working and L2s must be learned by other means
3- mechanism no longer available but L2 can be learned by copying model of natural language
4- mechanisms still available but only partially and must be helped by other means (in case of UG, some modules available and others not)
15
Q
Information processing perspective of language learning
A
JR. Anderson
Declarative vs procedural forms of knowledge
16
Q
Connectionism
A
Associative (neo behaviourist) theory that have been revived; statistical learning
Absorption of statistical regularities in environment through implicit learning mechanisms)
17
Q
How were errors viewed in L2 learning in the mid twentieth century?
A
Under influence of behaviourist learning theory, errors were viewed as consequences of bad habits which could be fixed by repetition activities like pattern drilling
18
Q
Developmental stages of language learning
A
Primitive like L2 towards target like L2
For example, development of negative particle (first putting it at the beginning of sentence, then inserted into verb phrase, then learn negation morphology
Therefore L2 learning follows a common route with diff speeds for everyone (systematicity)
19
Q
Three main characteristics of Interlanguage
A
Systematicity
Variability
Creativity
20
Q
Word for a memorizing chunk
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Formulaic sequence
21
Q
Fossilization
A
Stabilizing an alternative language system (errors) that cannot be changed, no matter how much practice
22
Q
When goal of native fluency not reached
A
Incomplete success
23
Q
Two explanations for incomplete success
A
1- pyscholinguistic: learning mechanisms that children use are no longer available or partially unavailable and no amount of effort can recreate them
2- sociolinguistic: older L2 learners don’t have the social opportunities or motivation to identify with native speaker community and instead value their own identity as learners (lingua Franca)
24
Language transfer and how it was viewed in the 60s/70s compared to now
UG perspective on this?
Behaviourists 1950s/60s= transfer important as bad habits
Interlanguage 1970s= downplayed transfer, focus on creativity
UG perspective: direct access=L1 only has peripheral influence but indirect access= L1 influence is key
25
Krashens belief of input (80s)
Input is all that is necessary for L2 learning
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Two types of variability
Within the learner: using grammatically correct and incorrect utterances interchangeably for a period of time
Across different learners: due to type of instruction, learners L1, individual differences
27
What's it called when learners make use of memorized, unanalyzed utterances
Routines or prefabrication
28
Acquisition of grammatical competence includes 4 areas
L2 phonology, syntax, morphology and vocab
29
Describe acquisition of L2 phonology
Adult L2 speech is accented as a result of phonetic transfer from their L1
30
Describe L2 syllabication
Languages vary in the type of syllable structure they permit
| Ex: english allows consonant clusters in onset and coda position
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What is stress assignment
L2 learners must learn stress patterns of the new language
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Positive vs negative evidence
Positive evidence= hearing grammatical utterances
| Negative evidence= not hearing anyone say something a certain way, thus deeming it ungrammatical
33
What do english learners learn first, ing or ed?
Ing
34
Four aspects of communicative competence
Grammatical (grammar knowledge) textual (how sentences link together), illocutionary (understanding intent or function of utterance), and sociolinguistic (knowing how to use it in a social context)
35
Critical period
Particular time frame in which learners have to be exposed to the language to have a fully successful acquisition process
Before age 7= native
Between= variation
After 14= not native
36
Why do younger learners need less effort to learn a language?
Changes in brain
Learning style (intuitive vs analytical)
Inhibition
37
What's earlier: critical period for grammar or pronunciation?
Pronunciation
38
Who's has more initial speed in learning, younger or older?
Older
39
Cognitive vs affective factors in L2 learning
```
Cognitive= mechanics of learning so aptitude and learning strategies
Affective= emotional side of learning so language attitudes, motivation, confidence, anxiety, willingness to communicate
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40
What is language aptitude and what test can test it
It's a gift for second language learning (different from general intelligence)
MLAT (modern language aptitude test)
Tests phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and associative memory abilities
41
Six types of language learning strategies and examples for each
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Memory strategy (creating mental images)
Cognitive strategy (practice)
Compensation strategy (adjusting the message)
Metacognitive strategy (setting goals)
Affective strategy (rewards)
Social strategy (asking for clarification)
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42
Two main types of motivation
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Integrative= open and accepting attitude towards the L2 language community
Instrumental= concrete benefits like a job
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43
Field dependant vs field independent
Field independent= see details without being distracted by big picture; better at grammar accuracy tests but slow/bad rhythm during speech
Field dependant= more focus on big picture; better at fluency tests but bad grammar
44
What is the recent turn in SLA research?
Looking at L2 learner as a social being, sociolinguistic factors (not just psycholinguistic or individualist perspective)
45
Describe SLA research in the 50s and 60s
Structuralism
Learning spoken L2 meant acquiring appropriate speech habits
Graded syllabus of structural patterns to ensure step by step systematic process
Grammar taught through presentation and practice
Errors should be avoided through practice and rehearsal
Tied to behaviourism (dominant mainstream learning theory at the time)
46
Behaviourism
Learning= formation of habits
Repeated reinforcement causes a certain stimulus to create the same response every time, making a habit
Says that the more similar the structure to your L1, the easier to learn
Teaching= practice makes perfect, drilling, focus on Contrastive Analysis
47
Contrastive analysis (CA)
Comparing properties of L1/L2 to see where difficulties may be found
Popular approach in 60s and 70s
Contrastive analysis hypothesis:
Strong= result of comparison predicts areas of difficult (no longer valid)
Weak= comparison can be used to help understand some Interlanguage errors
48
Inductive vs deductive learning
Inductive- students get many examples and figure out how the concept works based on that (specific to general)
Deductive- teacher explains concept and students practice it (general to specific)
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6 learner processes (contrastive analysis)
Transfer=no difference (many sounds found in both languages)
Coalescence=two forms in L1 but one in L2 (shade and shadow have one german word)
Under differentiation=item found in L1 but not in L2 (I am playing/I play= same sentence in german aka no aspect)
Reinterpretation=item from L1 used differently in L2 (how are you needs no answer in one language but needs answer in English)
Over differentiation=item not found in L1 but found in L2 (nouns have gender in L2 but not L1)
Split=one form in L1 but two in L2 (to know has two words in german)
50
Chomsky's critique of behaviourism
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Creativity of language (children don't copy, they produce utterances that they've never heard and they internalize rules not strings)
Platos problem (poverty of stimulus aka some things like reflexive pronouns cannot be learned just from receiving input)
Children are usually corrected on the truth of their utterances and not grammar
```
51
Describe first language acquisition L1A in the 70s
Striking similarities between L1A no matter what the language
Children all over the world go through similar stages aka make the same errors and use similar constructions
For specific Ls, pattern of acquisition was found (ex: morpheme studies in L1 by Roger Brown)
52
Two comments about children's language emergence
Children don't simply imitate at speech, they learn rules even if the rules do not correspond to rules of adult grammar
They are not susceptible to adult correction
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Three problems with Contrastive Analysis
Constructions that were the same in both languages were not necessarily easy to grasp
Constructions that were different were not necessarily difficult
Sometimes only difficulty in one direction ( english to French) but not the other way around (French to english)
54
Error analysis
Systematic investigation of L2 errors
| Corder 1967
55
The term Interlanguage was coined by who
Selinker
56
Morpheme studies in the 70s
Both child and adult learners of L2 english develop accuracy in certain grammatical morphemes in a set order no matter where or how they are learning
57
Critique of morpheme studies
Elicitation technique could cause bias in the results
| Debatable whether the accuracy of production is equal to acquisition sequences
58
1970s findings (3)
Interlanguage is systematic
Interlanguage is independent of the L1 (guided by internal principles which are independent of the L1, renders Contrastive analysis useless)
L2A has many similarities with L1A but also differences
59
Describe Krashen's Monitor Model from the 80s
Influential first try at bringing together post-behaviourist findings into one model of SLA
Many of the specific ideas are no longer supported but he inspired a lot of research
Made up of five basic hypotheses:
The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis= two ways of developing language ability; one is subconscious acceptance of knowledge is stored in the brain through the use of communication which is the process for developing a native language, learning on the other hand is conscious acceptance of information about a language therefore natural communication is the best way to learn
The Monitor Hypothesis= our leaning system can monitor our utterances and inspect/correct them but this can be bad because it causes too much focus on accuracy when we just need fluency
The Natural Order Hypothesis= learners learn parts of language in a specific order and teachers cannot change this
The Input Hypothesis= language acquisition occurs when people receive input they can understand aka comprehensible input; should be i+1 of their current knowledge to challenge them
The Affective-filter hypothesis= affective filter, which can be prompted by anxiety/stress/motivation/confidence, can be a wall that can prevent learning
60
Critiques of the five hypotheses of Krashen's Monitor Model
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: vague definition of conscious vs subconscious as they are difficult to test in practice AND he says learning cannot turn into acquisition (learning cannot all be unified)
The Monitor Hypothesis: no evidence of actual monitor use
The Natural Order Hypothesis: represents 1970s theories and has no place for language transfer or cross-linguistic influence AND doesn't explain WHY
The Input Hypothesis: vague; how do we determine level i and level i+1?
The Affective Filter Hypothesis: vague and doesn't explain how it actually works
61
What was the main weakness of Krashen's Monitor model
He just presented hypotheses, still needed to be tested as a comprehensive model to see if it had empirical validity and pedagogical implications
62
Two main Hypotheses of the 1980s
1980s=turning point, rise of Chomsky analysis
Interaction hypothesis= NS and NNS interactions are rich in meaning negotiation and this makes speech more understandable
Output hypothesis= only output really makes learners do deep grammatical processing and effectively develops their syntax and morphology
63
Five fundamental questions of issues in SLA
- the role of internal mechanisms (language specific and cognitive)
- the role of L1 (cross linguistic influence)
- the role of psychological variables (such as learner differences)
- the role of social/environmental factors
- the role of L2 input
64
Timeline of four important early events in SLA
1959- Chomsky's review of Skinners stimulus response reinforcement views
1967- Corder (the significance of learner errors)
1972- Selinker Interlanguage
1981- Krashen monitor model
65
General vs Special Nativist Theory
Nativist approach= at least some aspects of language learning involve innate ness
General nativism= no specific mechanism for language learning but general principles of learning
Special nativism= special principles just for language learning (includes UG)
66
Two assumptions of UG-based theories
- human beings have a specific capacity for language learning
- this capacity is innate and biologically determined
67
Universal Grammar Approach (generative linguistics approach)
Most influential theory in ling
Many theoretical and empirical publications
Property (not transition) theory
Mainly concerned with abstract mental representation of L not with performance
Views L as an inherited set of abstract principles and parameters which constrain the shape the Ls can take
-core of L is the lexicon
68
Principle vs parameter
```
Principle= no variation and apply to all Ls
Parameters= variation is what leads to differences between Ls
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69
What is the logical problem of language learning?
The gap between knowledge and experience (even though languages are very complex and children receive messy input, they are still able to create a mental representation of L that goes beyond the input they receive (Platos problem, poverty of stimulus argument)
70
7 arguments for UG from first language acquisition
1- children go through developmental stages
2- stages are similar in same L1
3- stages similar across languages
4- L1 is rule governed and systematic
5- children are resistant to correction
6- L1 learning requires mastering complex and abstract knowledge
7- L1A not linked to general intelligence
71
Proof in brain that L is separate from other cognitive faculties
Broca's aphasia (dis fluent) and wernickes aphasia (fluent but meaningless)
72
Characteristics of innate language faculty as a biological triggered behaviour
```
Emerges before it's necessary
Not result of conscious decision
Not triggered by external events
Direct teaching has little effect
Regular sequence of milestones
May be a critical period
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73
What is the task of L2 learners in SLA that has to do with UG
Identify which syntactic categories are required in the L2
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Evidence for UG in L1A
- evidence that children set the head parameter as early as the two word stage
- evidence that children acquire parametric variation in functional features in cluster like fashion
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Current debates in role of UG in SLA
- is UG available? To what extent? (Which parts of UG not just UG in general)
- what's the make up of Initial State (subconscious linguistic representations of L2 learners when they first start learning L2)
- why do learners stop short of ultimate attainment (L2 grammar less stable, Critical Period Hypothesis)
- role of interfaces (Interface Hypothesis)
76
Full vs partial vs no access Hypotheses
Full access= UG fully available, differences in patterns of acquisition between L1 and L2 accounted for in diff ways
Partial access= UG partially available (only the parameters characterizing the L1 grammar though) the rest must be learned through other learning strategies, UG viewed as modular
No access= totally inaccessible, learning takes place through other strategies, UG researchers usually wouldn't support this, emergentists would agree bc don't believe in UG
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UG is mainly concerned with?
Morphosyntax not discourse
78
Three explanations for why outcome of L2 is different than L1
- L1 and basic knowledge about world is already established
- learners=more mature
- learning environment and motivations are different
79
Input-Based Emergentist Perspective
Views L2 learning as bottom up aka learners use general learning mechanisms to find patterns and structure
Grammatical rules and formal aspects of L emerge through practice and experience, not innate or learned abstractly
Influenced by input and learner factors
80
7 input related factors
Frequency (how often does item occur in input)
Salience (how prominent)
Redundancy (essential for conveying meaning or not)
Syllabic (whether morpheme contains syllable)
Allomorphic invariance (different ways of pronouncing a letter)
Exceptions in a way a morpheme is used
Syntactic category
81
Associative learning
A learner related factor
Learning to associate a cue with an outcome (form-meaning mapping)
Associative-cognitive CREED (L learning is construction-based, rational, example-driven, emergent and dialectic)
SLA learned through general learning mechanisms
82
Name four form-function units of CREED
Lexical
Formulae
Slot and frame
Abstract schemata
83
Describe the rational aspect of CREED
L representations of the mind are tuned to predict the linguistic constructions that are most likely relevant in the discourse
Optimal mental models of the way language works bc linguistics experience
Unconscious language representation systems are probability tuned to predict the linguistic constructions that are most relevant
84
Describe exemplar-driven aspect of CREED
Learners find regularities from groups of similar constructions
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Describe emergent aspect of CREED
L regularities emerge as learners determine structure from language usage
Knowledge comes from experience
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Describe dialectic aspect of CREED
The learner is affected by their first language and their language environment
Interactions with others help stop aspects of associative learning that cause L2 learning problems
87
Three important aspects of language acquisition according to cognitive approaches
Frequency
Salience
Reliability
88
Learned attention
Affects associative learning
| We only pay attention to what's necessary
89
Explain attention blocking and overshadowing
Associative learning phenomenon of blocking where redundant cues are overshadowed because L1 experience makes learner look elsewhere for clues to interpretation
This causes attention blocking over time
90
What's the rationale for statistical learning?
If a computer can generate patterns similar to a human learners production without pre-programmed linguistic constraints, then learning could also happen by computing statistical properties
91
Describe statistical learning computer models
Connectionist computer models (ex: Simple recurrent networks SRNs)
Learns to produce output by processing sentences in its input, specifically designed to take note of co-occurrence relationships or transitional probabilities
SRNs can achieve some milestones associated with L1A
92
Describe the two property based perspectives
Processing=online attempt to understand streams of input
| Two theories=processability theory by pienemann and efficiency-driven processor by o'grady
93
Describe Pienemann's processing theory
Processability Theory
L acquisition=getting computer like processing skills necessary to process language
Uses Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) as a theory of grammar
Hierarchy of processing procedures
94
Main points of processing theory
- hierarchy of processing procedures
- perceptual salience (beginning and end of stimuli are easier to remember)
- Teachability hypothesis (learners follow rigid route in their acquisition of grammatical structures and they can only operate within their hypothesis space)
95
What are the predictions of the watching hypothesis
Stages of acquisition cannot be skipping through formal instruction
Instruction is most beneficial if it focuses on structures from the next stage of what the learner is capable of
96
Is emergentism opposed to nativism?
No but it is opposed to grammatical/representational nativism which is the innate grammatical structure view
97
Is learning a language possible without deduced knowledge of rules?
Growing evidence says that yes, form-meaning connections can be learned implicitly
98
What is the implicit cognitive view of language
L= set of probabilistic patterns which become strengthened in the brain of the learner through repeated activation
Tested with artificial languages
-central element of learning a language is the implicit calculation of statistical properties of L and how they relate to meaning/function
-Working memory capacity influences L2 learning when the learner has awareness of learning
-relevance to classroom research=better to have more input frequency to make certain features salient
99
Cognitive view of the L learner
Concerned with the individual as an implicit processor not a social being
100
Key mechanisms that cognitive theory says are important to L2 learning and not to L1
Particular memory system (working memory)
Explicit knowledge about L
Skill acquisition
Conscious attention to L form
101
Declarative vs procedure knowledge
Declarative knowledge= knowing that something is the case; explicit conscious knowledge (L2 learner)
Procedural knowledge= knowing how to do something, implicit knowledge (children learning native language)
102
Is emergentist/processed based theories implicit or explicit?
Implicit
This means that learning is both incidental (learner did not intend to learn the feature) and without awareness
Difficult to test but important to understand
103
Non-interface vs weak vs strong interface position
Non-interface position (Krashen's input hypothesis)= conscious learning about L and subconscious acquisition are two different things and learning cannot be converted into acquisition
Weak interface position= explicit knowledge helps in the perception of L2 form by facilitating the process of noticing aka Schmidt's noticing hypothesis
Strong interface position= generally not supported as L2 learners may have technical grammar knowledge but cannot communicate fluently or accurately
104
5 roles of explicit knowledge
Helps learners to:
- notice new parts of language
- put input into parts of speech
- narrow learners hypothesis space
- formulate correct output
- when comprehension fails, remember that problematic string
105
Three stages of learning (explicit Skill Acquisition Theory)
Stage 1: cognitive/declarative/presentation
-learners establish new explicit knowledge
-this knowledge goes to working memory and takes effort to maintain
Stage 2: associative/procedural/practice
-knowledge now becomes procedural knowledge as skill is performed
-reduces demands on working memory
-knowledge is prone to restructuring here
Stage 3: autonomous/automatic/production
-practice needs to take place before knowledge can be used quickly and reliably
-prone to errors but difficult to change as its out of attentional control
106
Schmidt's noticing hypothesis
Conscious registration of a form in the input is necessary for L learning to happen (noticing=bringing stimulus into focal attention)
Necessary for input -> intake
Studies suggest that teaching approaches that promote awareness lead to greater learning gains
107
What do learners attend to more: lexicon or Morphosyntax?
Lexicon
108
Baddley and Hitch's WM model
Two components:
- temporary storage of info (short term memory)
- control of that info, as required to carry out complex tasks (central executive attention)
109
Two ways of measuring WM capacity
Reading span task (reading increasingly long articles and saying the final word of each sentence in order)
Non-word repetition task (participants have to repeat nonsense words after hearing them)
110
What are the two beginning hypotheses for interaction?
Longs interaction hypothesis= necessary to make adjustments during conversation to obtain L2 input at the right level of difficulty; negotiation of meaning leads to greater problem solving success
Swains Output Hypothesis= learners own productions during L2 convos play important role in noticing/intake of new lang
111
Six types of corrective feedback
Explicit correction (learner is clearly told that they made an error and a correct reformation is given)
Recast (teacher says the sentence that the student said again minus their error)
Clarification request (learner is asking to clarify their meaning without telling them that they made an error)
Metalinguistic feedback (asking them to use a grammar rule properly)
Elicitation: learner is asked to re formulate their utterance
Repetition: teacher repeats the learners mistake as a question
112
Describe the revised interaction hypothesis and who created it
Long
Environmental contributions to acquisition are controlled by selective attention and learners developing L2 processing capacity
These are brought together most usefully through negotiation for meaning
This negative feedback is great for L2 learning
113
Three parts of study designs for engagement in interaction
Pretest
Treatment (control) group
Post test
114
How do skill acquisition theorists see feedback?
As making a contribution to the establishment and proceduralization of declarative knowledge
115
Are recasts successful?
Very popular but not very successful, prompts are better
116
Output hypothesis and who created it
Swain
| Only production forces L2 learners to do complete grammatical processing and thus helps syntax and morphology
117
Three functions of learner output
Noticing function
Hypothesis testing function
Meta linguistic/reflective function
118
Interactionalist idea of noticing
Encouraged noticing helps the leaner see differences between their Interlanguage and the target language during communicative interaction
119
Input vs intake vs uptake
Input: everything the learner is exposed to
Intake: everything the learner processes
Uptake: correction by a teacher that's used by the learner
120
Two difficulties of the interaction hypothesis
Difficulty explaining selective attention and can't point out what aspects of language this will help the most
121
What view did the interaction approach start with and then move away from?
Chomsky approach
122
Functionalist theory
Gavon Halliday and langacker
| Desired meaning determines Interlanguage
123
Thinking for speaking hypothesis
Easier to notice patterns that are similar to the L1
124
Satellite vs verb framed languages
Satellite framed= english, encode motion and manner in the verb and path in an exterior satellite
Verb framed= french/spanish, encode motion and path in verb
