Literary and Rhetorical Devices Flashcards
(360 cards)
1
Q
Definition: Active Voice
A
The subject of the sentence performs the action.
2
Q
Example: Active Voice
A
Anthony Drove while Toni searches for the house
3
Q
Effect on the Text: Active Voice
A
More Direct
4
Q
Definition: Allusion
A
An indirect reference to something with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
5
Q
Example: Allusion
A
” Don’t act like a Romeo”
6
Q
Effect on the Text: Allusion
A
To let readers compare emotions without you stating them
7
Q
Definition: Alter-ego
A
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author
speaks directly to the audience through a character.
8
Q
Example: Alter-ego
A
Clark Kent and Superman
9
Q
Effect on the Text: Alter-ego
A
Brings authors intentions through character
10
Q
Definition: Anecdote
A
A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non-fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
11
Q
Example: Anecdote
A
The Crucible by Arthur Miller
12
Q
Effect on Text: Anecdote
A
To bring humor
13
Q
Definition: Antecedent
A
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
14
Q
Example: Antecedent
A
David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there.
15
Q
Effect on Text: Antecedent
A
it’s quicker
16
Q
Definition: Classicism
A
Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional
themes and structures
17
Q
Example: Classicism
A
Shakespeare
18
Q
Effect on Text: Classicism
A
Classics
19
Q
Definition: Comic relief
A
when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood
somewhat.
20
Q
Example: Comic relief
A
The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief.
21
Q
Effect on Text: Comic relief
A
brings humor to a sad or tragic book movie or scene.
22
Q
Definition: Diction
A
Word choice, particularly as an element of style.
23
Q
Example: Diction
A
An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise
than street slang.
24
Q
Effect on Text: Diction
A
Making it clear
25
Definition: Colloquial
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
26
Example:Colloquial
Bamboozle – to deceive
27
Effect on Text:Colloquial
Informal speech
28
Definition: Connotation
Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a
word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
29
Example: Connotation
Childish Childlike and youthful
30
Effect on Text: Connotation
Give a different intent behind words
31
Definition: Denotation
The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
32
Example: Denotation
blue- color
33
Effect on Text: Denotation
Straight forward
34
Definition: Jargon
The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
35
Example: Jargon
Football calls
36
Effect on Text: Jargon
those people in groups will understand
37
Definition: Vernacular
1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional
clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech
38
Example: Vernacular
English in the US
39
Effect on Text: Vernacular
where the book is stationed or broadcasted to
40
Definition: Didactic
A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
41
Example: Didactic
Children's Fiction, Fables
42
Effect on Text: Didactic
To learn some lessons
43
Definition: Adage
A folk saying with a lesson.
44
Example: Adage
“A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
45
Effect on Text: Adage
Brings lessons
46
Definition: Allegory
A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an
abstraction or a truth.
47
Example:Allegory
Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
48
Effect on Text: Allegory
the truth
49
Definition: Aphorism
A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism
can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
50
Example: Aphorism
Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor
Richard's Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never
boils.”
51
Effect on Text: Aphorism
words from the author
52
Definition: Ellipsis
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
53
Example: Ellipsis
“The whole
| day, rain, torrents of rain.”
54
Effect on Text: Ellipsis
Repeats
55
Example: Euphemism
“Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.”
Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged” in place
of “short.”
56
Effect on Text: Euphemism
Adds humor
57
Definition: Figurative Language
writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
58
Example: Figurative Language
Hyperboly
59
Effect on Text: Figurative Language
Adds extra feelings and thoughts to few words
60
Definition: Analogy
An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables.
61
Example: Analogy
“America is to the world as the
| hippo is to the jungle.”
62
Effect on Text: Analogy
Draws comparison
63
Definition: Hyperbole
Exaggeration
64
Example: Hyperbole
“My mother will kill me if I am late.”
65
Effect on Text: Hyperbole
Adds a sense of dread
66
Definition: Idiom
A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
67
Example: Idiom
“I got
| chewed out by my coach.”
68
Effect on Text: Idiom
A culture reference
69
Definition: Metaphor
Metaphor: Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
70
Example: Metaphor
“My feet
| are popsicles.”
71
Effect on Text: Metaphor
Better imagery
72
Definition: Metonymy
Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
73
Example: Metonymy
“Relations
| between London and Washington have been strained,”
74
Effect on Text: Metonymy
Imagery
75
Definition: Synecdoche
– A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its
parts, or vice versa.
76
Example: Synecdoche
“The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”
77
Effect on Text: Synecdoche
Imagery
78
Definition: Simile
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very
different things.
79
Example: Simile
“My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
80
Effect on Text: Simile
Imagery
81
Definition: Synesthesia
– a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
82
Example: Synesthesia
“A purplish scent
| filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
83
Effect on Text: Synesthesia
Imagery
84
Definition: Personification
Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
85
Example: Personification
“The tired old truck
| groaned as it inched up the hill.”
86
Effect on Text: Personification
Imagery
87
Definition: Foreshadowing
When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
88
Example: Foreshadowing
Harry Potter Prisoner of Azkaban
89
Effect on Text: Foreshadowing
Hints on what to expect throughout the book, adds suspense
90
Definition: Genre
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose,
poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well
91
Example: Genre
Poetry, Fables, Non-fiction
92
Effect on Text: Genre
How the story goes
93
Definition: Gothic
abc
94
Definition: Gothic
Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. Also refers to an architectural style
of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.
95
Example: Gothic
Addams Family
96
Effect on Text: Gothic
Brings style
97
Definition: Imagery
Word or words that create a picture in the reader's mind. Usually this involves the five senses.
Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
98
Example: Imagery
Figurative language
99
Effect on Text: Imagery
Brings descriptions to readers mind
100
Definition: Invective
– A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
101
Example: Invective
A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave
102
Effect on Text: Invective
Adds aggression
103
Definition: Irony
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
104
Example: Irony
A fire station burns down
105
Effect on Text: Irony
Brings humor
106
Definition: Verbal irony
- When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
107
Example: Verbal irony
Saying, "A walk in the park" when talking about an 8 mile run
108
Effect on Text: Verbal irony
Humor
109
Definition: Dramatic irony
- When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the
character doesn't and would be surprised to find out.
110
Example: Dramatic irony
example, in many horror movies, we (the
| audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying.
111
Effect on Text: Dramatic irony
Humor
112
Definition: Situational irony
- Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it
makes you laugh because it's funny how things turn out.
113
Example: Situational irony
Johnny spent two hours
planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to
sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day.
114
Effect on Text: Situational irony
Humor
115
Definition: Juxtaposition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition
of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
116
Example: Juxtaposition
An author my juxtapose the average day of a
| typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary.
117
Effect on Text: Juxtaposition
for imagery
118
Definition: Mood
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction).
119
Example: Mood
The sky was a gloomy grey, with dying leaves in the fall indicates a depressing mood.
120
Effect on Text: Mood
Adds similar words
121
Definition: Motif
A recurring idea in a piece of literature.
122
Example: Motif
literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really
understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the
idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.
123
Effect on Text: Motif
nice
124
Definition: Oxymoron
When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
125
Example: Oxymoron
Wise fool
126
Effect on Text: Oxymoron
contradictions
127
Definition: Pacing
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing. Writers can use a variety of devices
128
Example: Pacing
Vibrato
129
Effect on Text: Pacing
Flows
130
Definition: Paradox
- A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true
131
Example: Paradox
“You can't get a job without
| experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job.”
132
Effect on Text: Paradox
Relatable
133
Definition: Parallelism
Sentence construction which
| places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
134
Example: Parallelism
“Cinderella swept the
| floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
135
Effect on Text: Parallelism
Adds emphasis organization or sometimes
136
Definition: Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
137
Example: Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
138
Effect on Text: Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
139
Definition: Chiasmus
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
140
Example: Chiasmus
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
141
Effect on Text: Chiasmus
Emphasis
142
Definition: Antithesis
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
143
Example: Antithesis
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
144
Effect on Text: Antithesis
Contrast
145
Definition: Zuegma (Syllepsis)
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the
meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
146
Example: Zuegma (Syllepsis)
“The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.”
147
Effect on Text: Zuegma (Syllepsis)
Separations in words and views
148
Definition: Parenthetical Idea
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost
considered an aside...a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly.
149
Example: Parenthetical Idea
“In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the
| gallon) America will be out of oil.”
150
Effect on Text: Parenthetical Idea
To tell the reader something or background that isn't particularly for the book characters
151
Definition: Parody
An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes.
152
Example: Parody
etc. The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays.
153
Effect on Text: Parody
Humor
154
Definition: Persona
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.
155
Example: Persona
The first paragraph of this book sounds as if Hemingway himself is Santiago.
156
Effect on Text: Persona
Helps the reader
157
Definition: Poetic device
A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.
158
Example: Poetic device
Alliteration
159
Effect on Text: Poetic device
Brings imagery
160
Definition: Alliteration
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
161
Example: Alliteration
“Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore”
162
Effect on Text: Alliteration
Draws attention and flows
163
Definition: Assonance
The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
164
Example: Assonance
“From the molten-golden notes”
165
Effect on Text: Assonance
Imagery
166
Definition: Consonance
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
167
Example: Consonance
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"
168
Effect on Text: Consonance
h
169
Definition: Onomatopoeia
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"
170
Example: Onomatopoeia
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"
171
Effect on Text: Onomatopoeia
Shows imagery
172
Definition: Internal rhyme
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"
173
Example: Internal rhyme
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"
174
Effect on Text: Internal rhyme
Flows
175
Definition: Slant rhyme
When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
176
Example: Slant rhyme
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”
177
Effect on Text: Slant rhyme
Visually pleasing
178
Definition: End rhyme
When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
179
Example: End rhyme
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
180
Effect on Text: End rhyme
Visually and audibly pleasing
181
Definition: Rhyme Scheme
The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes.
182
Example: Rhyme Scheme
a b a b c d c d
183
Effect on Text: Rhyme Scheme
Nice to look at
184
Definition: Stressed and unstressed syllables
In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force
than the other syllable(s).
185
Example: Stressed and unstressed syllables
In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed. In the word
“unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed.
186
Effect on Text: Stressed and unstressed syllables
Brings attention
187
Definition: Meter
A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.
188
Example: Meter
ICE CREAM
189
Effect on Text: Meter
emphasis
190
Definition: Free verse
Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.
191
Example: Free verse
A Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman)
192
Effect on Text: Free verse
more like a story
193
Definition: Iambic pentameter
Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
194
Example: Iambic pentameter
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
195
Effect on Text: Iambic pentameter
Short and sweet
196
Definition: Sonnet
A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter.
197
Example: Sonnet
“Death be not proud.” —John Donne
198
Effect on Text: Sonnet
Nice to look at
199
Definition: Polysyndeton
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list.
200
Example: Polysyndeton
“I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.”
201
Effect on Text: Polysyndeton
A list
202
Definition: Pun
hWhen a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
203
Example: Pun
“I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
204
Effect on Text: Pun
Humor
205
Definition: Rhetoric
The art of effective communication.
206
Example: Rhetoric
The triangle
207
Effect on Text: Rhetoric
basic understanding for persuasion
208
Definition: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
The relationships, in any piece of writing,
between the writer, the audience, and the
subject.
209
Example: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Ethos pathos logos
210
Effect on Text: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
All analysis of writing is essentially
an analysis of the relationships between the
points on the triangle.
211
Definition: Rhetorical Question
Question not asked for information but for effect.
212
Example: Rhetorical Question
“The angry parent asked the
| child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
213
Effect on Text: Rhetorical Question
Draws conclusions
214
Definition: Romanticism
– Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the
world, and an emphasis on nature.
215
Example: Romanticism
To Autumn by John Keats
216
Effect on Text: Romanticism
tone
217
Definition: Sarcasm
- A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and
irony are sarcastic.
218
Example: Sarcasm
Why don't we all just jump off a bridge now?
219
Effect on Text: Sarcasm
aggressive or funny
220
Definition: Satire
- A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect.
221
Example: Satire
Aristophanes and Plautus satirized ancient Greek culture
222
Effect on Text: Satire
Good satire usually has three layers: serious
on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern
the underlying point of the author.
223
Definition: Sentence
- A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
224
Example: Sentence
She took a run
225
Effect on Text: Sentence
basic building blocks of a book poem or any piece of literature
226
Definition: Appositive
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning.
227
Example: Appositive
“Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
228
Effect on Text: Appositive
more information
229
Definition: Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.
230
Example: Clause
“Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.”
231
Effect on Text: Clause
builds a sentence
232
Definition: Balanced sentence
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each
other like equal weights on a scale.
233
Example: Balanced sentence
“If a free
| society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
234
Effect on Text: Balanced sentence
Correct in grammar
235
Definition: Compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
| clauses.
236
Example: Compound sentence
i went to the store, and i also went to the theater
237
Effect on Text: Compound sentence
more words less abrupt stops
238
Definition: Complex sentence
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.
239
Example: Complex sentence
without my dog, id be nothing.
240
Effect on Text: Complex sentence
no abrupt stops and not to many words
241
Definition: Cumulative sentence
When the writer begins with an
| independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
242
Example: Cumulative sentence
“He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.”
243
Effect on Text: Cumulative sentence
more imagery
244
Definition: Periodic sentence
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence.
The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause.
245
Example: Periodic sentence
“His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted
whether he could ever again appear before an audience.”
246
Effect on Text: Periodic sentence
Wordier and more imagery
247
Definition: Simple sentence
Contains only one independent clause.
248
Example: Simple sentence
She took a walk
249
Effect on Text: Simple sentence
Straight to the point
250
Definition: Declarative sentence
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it
ask a question.
251
Example: Declarative sentence
“The ball is round.”
252
Effect on Text: Declarative sentence
straight to the point
253
Definition: Imperative sentence
Issues a command.
254
Example: Imperative sentence
“Kick the ball.”
255
Effect on Text: Imperative sentence
Commands
256
Definition: Interrogative sentence
- Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose).
257
Example: Interrogative sentence
“To whom did you kick the ball?”
258
Effect on Text: Interrogative sentence
questions
259
Definition: Style
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
260
Example: Style
Descriptive Style
261
Effect on Text: Style
every writer or artist has different styles
262
Definition: Symbol
Anything that represents or stands for something else.
263
Example: Symbol
Whale in Moby Dick
264
Effect on Text: Symbol
Grammatical arrangement of words.
265
Definition: Syntax/sentence variety
- Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult
concepts to master.
266
Example: Syntax/sentence variety
long). How does
sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning. Are they simple, compound, compound-complex
sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of words, while diction refers to the selection of individual words.
267
Effect on Text: Syntax/sentence variety
tones effects, moods all the above basically
268
Definition: Theme
The central idea or message of a work.
269
Example: Theme
bagels are better then toast
270
Effect on Text: Theme
Plot follows this theme
271
Definition: Tone
A writer's attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and
organization.
272
Example: Tone
Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
273
Effect on Text: Tone
word choice
274
Definition: Understatement
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant
than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
275
Example: Understatement
“Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to
| merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
276
Effect on Text: Understatement
downplaying situations or words
277
Definition: Litotes
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement
which otherwise would be used.
278
Example: Litotes
(Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any
good)
279
Effect on Text: Litotes
imagery
280
Definition: Argument
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion.
281
Example: Argument
all spam is pink
282
Effect on Text: Argument
leads the text
283
Definition: Premises:
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
284
Example: Premises:
couple seeing a movie chosen by one, because they saw a movie chosen by the other last week.
285
Effect on Text: Premises:
leads text
286
Definition: Conclusion:
A conclusion is the end result of the argument the main point being made.
287
Example: Conclusion:
in conclusion bagels are better due to the softness and flavors
288
Effect on Text: Conclusion:
ends the argument
289
Definition: Aristotle’s appeals
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more
valid than someone else's.
290
Example: Aristotle’s appeals
The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion
(appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
291
Effect on Text: Aristotle’s appeals
starts argumentative writing
292
Definition: Ethos
being convinced by the credibility of the author.
293
Example: Ethos
scientist articles
294
Effect on Text: Ethos
adds credibility
295
Definition: Pathos
persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions.
296
Example: Pathos
children dying and using that as the argument
297
Effect on Text: Pathos
adds empathy or sympathy
298
Definition: Logos
means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments.
299
Example: Logos
argument for tax reform might include: The United States has the highest corporate income tax in the world.
300
Effect on Text: Logos
adds logic
301
Definition: Concession
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even
if it is presented by the opposition.
302
Example: Concession
A teenager arguing to her parents that she needs a cell phone makes the following concession: I know that you think I will just use the phone to text during class and call friends instead of doing homework.
303
Effect on Text: Concession
Adds understanding
304
Definition: Conditional Statement
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent.
305
Example: Conditional Statement
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
306
Effect on Text: Conditional Statement
cause effect
307
Definition: Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions.
308
Example: Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions,
309
Effect on Text: Contradiction
Falsehood
310
Definition: Counterexample
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
311
Example: Counterexample
Jane argued that all whales are endangered. Belugas are a type of whale. Belugas are not endangered.
312
Effect on Text: Counterexample
Leads readers to draw conclusions
313
Definition: Deductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion.
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Example: Deductive argument
All men are mortal. (First premise) Socrates is a man. (Second premise) Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)
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Effect on Text: Deductive argument
leads to conclusions
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Definition: Fallacy
is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning.
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Example: Fallacy
Straw man—“I know some folks in Washington and on Wall Street are saying we should just focus on their problems.
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Effect on Text: Fallacy
falsehood
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Definition: Ad hominem:
Latin for "against the man". Personally attacking your opponents instead of their
arguments.
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Example: Ad hominem:
Saying they lie just because its them
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Effect on Text: Ad hominem:
unprofessional and not likely to win
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Definition: Appeal to authority:
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be
right.
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Example: Appeal to authority:
Katy Perry thinks the world is flat so it is.
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Effect on Text: Appeal to authority:
falsehoods
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Definition: Appeal to the bandwagon:
The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or
used to believe it, or do it.
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Example: Appeal to the bandwagon:
In the 1800's there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured
sickness. All of these people were not just wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact it made
people sicker.
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Effect on Text: Appeal to the bandwagon:
falsehood
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Definition: Appeal to emotion:
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s
emotions.
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Example: Appeal to emotion
Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal
to patriotism
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Effect on Text: Appeal to emotion:
adds sadness happiness or pity
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Definition: Bad analogy:
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren't.
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Example: Bad analogy:
“We have pure
food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can't we have laws to keep
musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
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Effect on Text: Bad analogy:
Turns argument downwards
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Definition: Cliche thinking:
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no
exceptions.
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Example: Cliche thinking:
“I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country
does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
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Effect on Text: Cliche thinking:
Not good
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Definition: False cause:
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.
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Example: False cause:
“I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country
does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
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Effect on Text: False cause:
Negative imapct
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Definition: Hasty generalization:
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
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Example: Hasty generalization:
“My uncle
didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as
well as those who do.”
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Effect on Text: Hasty generalization:
Negative
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Definition: Non Sequitur:
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
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Example: Non Sequitur:
“Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest
religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the
principles of Hinduism must be true.”
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Effect on Text: Non Sequitur:
Negative impact
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Definition: Slippery slope:
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme
possible outcome.
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Example: Slippery slope:
“If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then
you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
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Effect on Text: Slippery slope:
negative
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Definition: Inductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth
of the conclusion.
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Example: Inductive argument
the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if
| they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.
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Effect on Text: Inductive argument
Mostly correct
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Definition: Sound argument
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of
reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
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Example: Sound argument
True conclusion/Therefore, C is B
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Effect on Text: Sound argument
Ok
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Definition: Unstated premises
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left
unexpressed.
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Example: Unstated premises
If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated
that Rover is a dog.
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Effect on Text: Unstated premises
Hiding meanings
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Definition: Valid argument
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
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Example: Valid argument
Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn. Elizabeth does not own a Honda. Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn.
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Effect on Text: Valid argument
Correct
