Living Standards 1851-1886

Question 1

To what extent did the living standards of the majority of the British people improve during the years 1851 to 1881?

Question 2

how can standards of living be measured

Answer 2

-GDP (real wages)
Health- life expectancy, infant mortality, biometric data
etc, such as height and weight which were largely avaliable due to the army
Unemployment rates
Leisure, working rights etc

Question 3

Why might you have expected living
standards to improve 1851-73?

Answer 3

Strong economy (1851-73) ‘Workshop of the World’

British GDP per capita in 1870 was $3,260, 20% higher
than the next wealthiest European country and 25% higher
than the USA.

Social reforms (BUT w/c v vulnerable- lack of safety net -
Poor Law)

any worker was ‘rarely more than a hair’s breadth removed from
the pauper’ (Hobsbawn).

Question 4

how can you evaluate methods of measuring standards of living

Answer 4

-Neither real wages nor GDP per capita, for example, say
anything about the distribution or share of income and real wages do not benefit the unemployed at all.
-Secondly, the historical evidence available is fragmented, incomplete and sometimes absent, making conclusions probable rather than definitive.
-The statistical data on the numbers of the unemployed, for example, are incomplete and, whilst most workers experienced unemployment at some time, we do not know exactly when and for how long. Workers were often employed by the job (building workers), by the week or by
the day (dockers) and they would experience cyclical seasonal or frictional (the gap between changing jobs) unemployment.
-Rising real wages obviously had some impact on
the living standards of workers and this is evidenced by greater consumption but we remain unsure of the extent given we are unsure about the consistency of wages.

Question 5

what was the british gdp per capita in 1870
and eval

Answer 5

British GDP per capita in 1870 was $3,260, 20% higher than the next wealthiest European country and 25% higher than the USA. This was, of course, consistent with the position of GB in the world. But it is a blunt measurement as it says nothing about the distribution of wealth in a profoundly unequal society.

Question 6

what were the divisions within england and wat were the working class defines as
-statistics

Answer 6

divisions by class, higher, middle and working class
working class were not a homogenous group,
interclass divides between the skilled and unskilled
-Lloyd Jones- the true working class were those that laboured with their muscles for wages to maintain themselves
- working class made 80% of the population but only had 35.9% of total wealth in 1867
-4/5 of population earned living through manual labour
-industrial north vs agricultural south

Question 7

what was the crofters war

Answer 7

• in scotland national identity and preservation of language was important , attempts made to anglicise gaeli speakers in 1872 through education act
  -migration made those who spoke gaelic depopulated
• gaelic speaking crofting families left behind during golden age of farming
  -largely ignorant of new techniques
  -rents became high under depression abd in 1882 crofters war broke out
• highlighted economic unbalance between north vs south of scotland
  -scottish north workers gad higher salaries

Question 8

cities in scotland that prospered

Answer 8

• edinburgh- 3rd wealthiest
  -glasgow - fifth wealthiest

Question 9

prosperity in england due to the economy and workshop of the world- who benefitted

Answer 9

• profits of industry and capital went into overseas developments
  -middle classes benefitted most
  -could afford best quality furniture, domestic servants
• built large houses in birmingham outskirts
  -limited size of families through birth control, educated children privately
  -viewed this rise in living standards as a reward for thriftiness and hard work

Question 10

how did wages of the working classes increase
+eval (how much spent etc, ref historian)

Answer 10

• money wages rose by 50% from 1850-1875
  -real wages increased by 1/3rd from 1875-1900
• historian Thomson, analysed earinibgs of farm labours in line with rises in wages, states that even at best their wages were no more than 20 shillings a week, could never be classed as anything but poor
  -further, But workers spent 95% of their income on basic necessities whilst the upper classes spent only 65%.

Question 11

what was the bank holiday act of 1871 and what was the working week like for the working classes

Answer 11

• legislation made provision for 4 statutory holidays a year
• the working week for workers declined from 65 hours/week in 1856 to 56 in 1873 and bank holidays and half day work on Saturdays gave workers more leisure time but they still worked 6 days of the week.

Question 12

what did rising wages and falling prices mean for the working classes
(what could they buy)
refer to food

Answer 12

-simple commodities like soap and matches became more readily available
-transport costa halved so did the price of a loaf of bread
-prices of canned meats halved by 1900
-growth of nutritious & convenient fish & chips, sugar (price down by 58%),

Question 13

why did living standards not improve for the poor
- rent
- money wage increases and division
-unemployed
- cotton workers and rural

Answer 13

• housing costs did not fall with prices; rent 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 of wages and housing poor with overcrowding
  -Money wage increases was uneven – depended on type of W/C & economic circumstances e.g cotton workers unemployed by lack of cotton caused by US Civil war of1860s; rural wages rose from 1860 but dropped in Great Depression 1873- 1886.
  -No stats avail for unemployed who don’t benefit from RWs nor for self-employed W/C income that supplemented wages (‘penny capitalism’).

Question 14

what did statistics of the poor law show and how can this be evaluated
-booth research
-causes of poverty

Answer 14

-Official stats on Poor Law (PL) show decline in relief given (1m or 5.7% 1850 to 808k or 3% 1880).
-however the reduce in poor law can be accredited to views on outdoor relief, ‘ W/Cs avoided hated PL; poverty research by Booth et al 1886 estimated 30% of population lived in poverty.
-Causes? Unemploy, low wages, casual or temp wk, illness or old age. PL did not even touch problem.
-these categories of working class life had better lives than the very poor, the ‘submerged tenth’, but all of them feared joining them. The threat of unemployment combined with the hated poor law meant that any worker was ‘rarely more than a hairs breadth removed from the pauper’ (

Question 15

what share of national income did industrial workers have

Answer 15

-Indust W/C only 2x share of national income in period but it had increased 4x

Question 16

what statistics are there of paupers on relief in 1834-1880

Answer 16

in 1834 8.8% of the population were on relief vs
3% in 1880

Question 17

what can you conclude about the working classes

Answer 17

-Working classes had an uneven experience of improved living standards. Better living standards through increase in real wages but that was lost if a worker became unemployed. 30% in poverty. No real share in increased national wealth created by workshop of the world though they do the work

Question 18

biometric data on the standard of living

Answer 18

• rise in real wages indicates an increase in well being however does not show the actual achievement of it which can be seen through biometric analysis
  -between 1860-1900 the mean height of men did not change from 5ft”5
  -BMI in this period declines to 21.2 vs 24.3 of todays period
  -. A BMI index of under 20 indicates a person so underweight that it significantly increases their risk of (premature) death
  -Average life expectancy of 41.1 years in 1851-60 rose slowly to 41.2 years in 1861-70 however this was only a marginal change and life expectancy in urban cities was often 10 years less than that of rural areas
  -Infant mortality rates actually rose at the end of the 19th C.

Question 19

rise in outdoor relief statistics

Answer 19

-Instead, it can be explained by the growing provision of indoor relief which increased from 12-15% in the 1850s but grew to 21.5% and to 40% in 1880 and 1913 respectively. Workers viewed outdoor relief as an entitlement but hated the stigma of indoor relief and did not claim it hence the decline in Poor Law applicants.

Question 20

What was the outcome of the crofters war

Answer 20

• forced the govt in london to take notice of problems of poverty and landholding in the highlands, Napier commission was appointed
  -1886 crofters act was passed which gave crofting families security of tenure and ended arbitrary eviction by the land lord

Question 21

why was there a vast amount of social reforms passed

Answer 21

• strong political governance of Gladstone and Disraeli between 1866-1885 meant years of strong governments allowing for an enormous quantity of legislation that aimed to address social problems of the day
• however it did not necessarily have the condition of the people at heart

Question 22

What were the labour laws introduced by the liberal government and when and why did gladstone pass then

Answer 22

-Trade union act -1871, legal right of unions to hold property and funds and have them protected by law + right to strike
-Criminal law amendment act- made any form of picketing illegal , trade unions legalised yet could not carry out actions
why?
-strong religious beliefs against violence

Question 23

What was the conspiracy and protection of property act
when why who

Answer 23

-1875, passed by conservatives
- strengthened the position of trade unions and encouraged their growth
- altered the conspiracy law and in effect legalised peaceful picketing and the right to strike
- disraeli, opportunism and want for working class support

Question 24

What was the equality laws passed
who when

Answer 24

-1870, Liberals Married women’s property act
-gave married women legal status and allowed them to keep a portion of their own earnings

Question 25

What housing reforms did Con pass
when
no of evicted
why

Answer 25

Artisans dwelling act-
1875
-lots of labourers lived in
deplorable jerry built houses which were unsanitary , overcrowded and poorly built
-It is estimated that railway clearances elsewhere in the metropolis, mainly in the 1860s, evicted 56,000 people, most from the poorer working classes.
-act gave local authorities the power to purchase clear and then redevelop slims
-marked the beginning of local authority housing and state intervention in terms of private dwelling houses

Question 26

failings of the artisans dwelling act and the metropolitan board of works role
disraeli view on permissive legislation

Answer 26

-In fact, there were so many potential targets that the Metropolitan Board of Works overreached itself, evicting thousands while the housing associations who should have provided new homes proved unable or unwilling to build, and cleared sites lay empty and undeveloped for years to come.
- the act was permissive as it lacked compulsory purchase order
-disraeli - “Permissive legislation is the characteristic of a free people”

Question 27

Disraeli futher reforms
-food
-enclosure

Answer 27

-Sale of food and drugs act-
1875
-Foodstuff was often bulked out with products such as sand- this was widespread buying adulterated food, set out very tight regulations on the preparation and adulteration of food
-Enclosures Act
1876- Wanted to limit the amount of land seized by wealthy landowners for private use, more common land was needed for lower classes, prevented landowners from acquiring common land

Question 28

Gladstone futher reforms in his second ministery
-seamen
-schools
-women
-factories

Answer 28

-1880 Seamens
Wages Act- Ensured fairer wages for seamen, inspired by the merchant
seamens act in 1876 which introduced regular inspection of ships by the board of trade
-1881 Mundella education act- Made attendance at elementary school compulsory for all children aged
between 5-10 but it was still not free and therefore difficult to enforce,
-1882 Married womens property act- Extended the 1870 act to cover all forms of property, it allowed married women to enter into contracts and have responsibility for their own debts, their property could not be confiscated
to pay husbands debt
-1883 Factory and workshops act-Attempted to introduce protection for workers in the dangerous white lead industry but it had very limited effect

Question 29

life expectancy , children’s

Answer 29

25% of children died before the age of fiv

Question 30

what were standards of living for women like
-working variations , marriage
Lancashire cottonb

Answer 30

-there was a steady fall in the proportion of women (W) in employment from 1860s onwards to 1911, especially in Ireland where numbers halved. Regional variations = half as many W in wk in Wales compared to Eng.
-Heavy industry = few oppos for W; increased RWs combined with attitudes of ‘separate spheres’ to keep W at home; Tr Uns hostile to W at work as seen as argument for lower male wages that could be supplemented by work of wife.
-Mainly single W worked until marriage (55%) and thereafter only 10% married W worked apart from Lancashire cotton (60% W).

Question 31

estimated number of prostitutes in London

Answer 31

-Victorian alarm at extent of prostitution: unreliable stats but London ests of 3,000 brothels and 9,000 prostitutes (cld earn up to £2/wk).

Question 32

what was the biggest employer of women
-census

Answer 32

-Domestic service biggest employer (1.1m 1851; 1.8m in 1881), poorly paid (free board & food plus 6s/wk!); followed by textiles and poorly paid ‘sweated’ clothing trades (both sectors grew over period).
-men often competed census and ignored the role of women in family economy

Question 33

education for women - 1871

Answer 33

-Any increased income came at cost of hard lives for W/C W who were often unable to access education – in 1871 27% of brides in Eng & Wales were unable to sign their names on the wedding register.

Question 34

amount of women working
urban vs rural
eval of census
-girls

Answer 34

-men filled out
-only counted women in regular work , W/C W played role in temp work & tough self-employed ‘penny capitalism’ during ‘hard times’ but no stats.
urban-50%
rural-20-30%
1 in 9 girls were domestic servants

Question 35

improvements in living standards for women
eval+ single women

Answer 35

• slow growth in better occupations for women e.g female teachers, nurses, clerks, retail and administration = 184,000 W in 1862 but 562,00 by 1900 (men paid up to 2x for same job)
• Married W played vital role in family & community but overworked by male refusal to help at home – attitude of ‘separate spheres’ of ‘manly’ work and female home (domestic).
• Lack of work = lack of indep = difficult living standards for single women, especially if unmarried or widowed.

Question 36

what were living standards like for the upper classes
-farming ref
-lords land
-agricultural share of national income

Answer 36

-1870s: 9 out of 10 British millionaires were landowners; 180 Lords owned estates of 10,000 acres or more.
-Free trade imports and industry, especially after 1873, had reduced the source of aristocratic wealth: land value and rents. The Great Depression of 1873 hit farming hard especially those farmers in debt caused by previous investment in ‘High Farming’. Many poor harvests in 1870s, combined with the halving of transport costs of foreign imported cereals (by 1880 3⁄4 of cereals was imported), then produced an economic crisis for this part of the aristocracy.
-By 1880 the value of manufacturing and foreign trade was far greater than land; agriculture’s share of national income halved from 20% (1851) to 10.4% (1881).

Question 37

upper classes - land and mining
Lord Londonderry
-transatlantic upper class

Answer 37

-: land remained valuable especially land needed for industry. Lord Londonderry’s estates in Durham, north-east England, was one of best sources of coal in the world and he earned far more in mining royalties than others did from agriculture
-The aristocracy adapted to the age and even added wealth through marriage to rich American women. In 1870-1914 there were 104 weddings creating a ‘transatlantic upper class’ e.g Randolph Churchill

Question 38

growth in middle class living standards

Answer 38

-65% spent on necessities
-The growth of the middle classes (M/Cs), in excess of population growth, driven by industry, foreign trade, the professions and an expanding retail sector, experienced a boom: servants, holidays, school and university fees, new M/C suburbs with large houses
-Such costs probably explain why the M/C birth-rate subsequently declined – children are expensive – and this pattern was later shown by the W/Cs. Smaller families increased disposal income improving living standards
-. Between 1870 & 1900 payments in income tax nearly doubled to 900,000 people (NB: the W/Cs never earned enough to pay it). A new investment class within the upper classes was created by the growth in foreign investment and this class more than doubled its’ share in national income – a big winner in living standards.

Question 39

Conclusions any living standards after public health act
-Booth and Roundtree

Answer 39

-despite the Public Health Acts, the reports of Booth (1889) and Rowntree (1901) revealed that living conditions remained poor for a significant proportion of the working classes. Furthermore, the number of people living below the poverty line revealed in these reports was a significant concern

Question 40

Why were reforms limited in nature In this time period
-politics

Answer 40

-reforms were limited in nature and did not form part of a coherent strategy to address social issues because the leading figures of the day, notably Gladstone and Salisbury, and Disraeli too after 1876, did not prioritise social reform