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GAB: PAFF > Locomotion > Flashcards

Locomotion Flashcards

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1
Q

List the tissues that make up the musculoskeletal system

A

Bone
Cartilage
Aponeuroses
Tendon
Ligament
Skeletal muscle
Nerves
Blood vessels
Receptors

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2
Q

How is bone adapted for its purpose?

A

Collagen rich matrix for flexibility and tensile strength
Mineralised matrix to resist compression
Lightweight due to trabecules
Able to remodel
Highly vascularised for metabolism, growth, repair etc

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3
Q

How is skeletal muscle adapted for its purpose?

A

Lots of mitochondria
Long multicellular fibres
Sliding filaments
Can undergo hypertrophy or atrophy in response to use or disuse
Satellite cells to support myocytes
Points of attachment optimise biomechanical efficiency

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4
Q

How are the ECM of musculoskeletal tissues adapted for load bearing?

A

Collagen fibres for tensile strength (eg bone)
Elastin fibres for stretching
Mineralisation to resist compression (eg bone)
Water for cushioning and smoothness

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5
Q

How are histological samples prepared?

A

Trimming
Fixing
Sectioning
Floating onto slides
Staining

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6
Q

How do we identify epithelium on histology?

A

Form a boundary: liquid or air on one side
Organised into structures such as tubules, acini, ducts, mucosa and more

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7
Q

Function of simple columnar epithelium

A

Active transport, active processes

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8
Q

Function of simple squamous epithelium

A

Thin so things easily diffuse across
Can be protective

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9
Q

How is stratified epithelium named when there are multiple epithelium types in the different layers?

A

Named for the uppermost layer

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10
Q

Composition of bovine distal forelimb

A

Radius and ulna
Radial, intermediate, ulnar and accessory carpals
Middle carpals 2/3 fused and 4
Metacarpals 3/4 fused, vestigial 5

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11
Q

Composition of carnivore distal forelimb

A

Radius and ulna
Fused radial/intermediate carpal, ulnar carpal and accessory carpal
Middle carpals 1-4
Metacarpals 1-5

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12
Q

Composition of equine distal forelimb

A

Fused radius and ulna
Radial carpal, intermediate carpal, ulnar carpal, accessory carpal
Middle carpals 1-4 (1 is vestigial)
Metacarpal 3 plus vestigial 2 and 4

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13
Q

Composition of pig distal forelimb

A

Radius and ulna
Radial, intermediate, ulnar and accessory carpals
Middle carpals 1-4
Metacarpals 2-5

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14
Q

Synovial joint

A

Highly mobile joint (eg hinge or ball and socket)
Contained within joint capsule and synovial membrane
Synovial fluid
Hyaline articular cartilage
May have fibrocartilage menisci

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15
Q

Symphisis

A

Very little mobility (eg relaxin allows some movement of pubic symphysis)
Cartilaginous

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16
Q

Synchondrosis

A

Hyaline cartilage (no perichondrium)
Growth plates

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17
Q

Synsarcosis

A

Bones are joined by muscle
eg shoulder of cursorial species

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18
Q

Fibrous joint

A

Fibrous
No movement

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19
Q

Types of fibrous joint

A

Gomphosis
Suture
Syndesmosis

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20
Q

What does a synovial joint consist of?

A

Bone
Cartilage (articular hyaline w/ perichondrium, articular calcified cartilage)
Synovial fluid (should be clear)
Fibrous joint capsule
Synovial sub-intima
Synovial membrane
Ligaments
May have menisci

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21
Q

Function of synovial fluid

A

Lubricant
Cushioning

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22
Q

Composition of synovial fluid

A

Water, hyaluronic acid and lubricin
Glucose and electrolytes to bathe avascular cartilage
Surface active phospholipids (lubricate and protect cartilage)
Few mononuclear leukocytes
Type A (macrophage like) and B (fibroblast like) lining cells producing hyaluronic acid

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23
Q

Structure of articular cartilage

A

Articular calcified cartilage sticks articular hyaline cartilage to subchondral bone
Aneural and avascular
Superficial (articular surface), middle and deep (proliferating) zones
Mostly matrix, over 75% water
Matrix consists of water, type II collagen, aggrecan, other collagens, other proteoglycans

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24
Q

Function of articular cartilage

A

Provides a smooth surface for easy articulation
Cushioning to protect subchondral bone

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25
Arrangement of collagen fibres in articular cartilage
Horizontal in superficial zone Deeper down, they form Beninghoff arcades: columns descending down towards calcified articular cartilage
26
Function of type II colllagen in articular cartilage
Provides tensile strength
27
Function of proteoglycans in articular cartilage
To resist compression
28
Relationship of articular cartilage with subchondral bone
Linked by calcified articular cartilage Articular cartilage protects subchondral bone and provides smooth articular surface Subchondral bone supports and anchors articular cartilage
29
Where is hyaline cartilage found?
Articular surfaces Growth plates Rings of trachea
30
Where is elastic cartilage found?
Laryngeal cartilages Epiglottis Ear (pinna) Eustachian tube (communication between ear and sinus)
31
Where is fibrocartilage found?
Menisci Intervertebral discs Attachments of tendons and ligaments
32
Structure of elastic cartilage
Large quantities of elastin Surrounded by perichondrium Often merged with tougher connective tissues for support
33
Does hyaline cartilage have a perichondrium?
Articular hyaline cartilage does, other hyaline cartilages do not
34
Order epiphysis, diaphysis and metaphysis from centre to extremities of bone
Diaphysis, metaphysis, epiphysis
35
Structure of cortical bone
Dense bone Consists of circular structures called osteons Rings of mineralised matrix surrounding a central Haversian canal carrying blood vessels and nerves Osteocytes embedded between rings of the osteons connected by canaliculi
36
Structure of the periosteum
Connects to bone by Sharpey's fibres Contains blood vessels and nerves to supply bone Inner cambium layer containing progenitor cells Outer fibrous layer consisting of dense, irregular connective tissue
37
Composition of bone matrix
Type I collagen Other collagens Hydroxyapatite Water Far fewer proteoglycans than cartilage
38
Woven bone
The first bone formed in both foetal development and fracture repair Disorganised collagen fibres
39
Lamellar bone
Mature bone Formed of layers called lamellae Collagen fibres within each layer are all oriented the same way Each layer has a different collagen fibre orientation for improved strength`
40
Bone cell functions
Osteoblasts - Forming bone Osteoclasts - Resorbing bone Osteocytes - Telling osteoblasts and osteocytes what to do
41
Three fates of osteoblasts
Apoptosis Osteocyte Lining cell
42
Osteoblast characteristics
Expresses high levels of ALPL Expresses and responds to growth factors Large endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
43
Osteocyte characteristics
Most abundant cell type in bone Sit in lacunae, small distance between cell membrane and surrounding bone Many cell processes into canaliculi, uses these to communicate
44
(Possible) functions of the osteocyte
Regulating osteoblasts and osteocytes via proteins and cytokines Mechanosensor Detecting and implementing repair of microfractures Possible bone resorption
45
Osteoclast characteristics
Huge and multinuclear - differentiation by fusion of monocytes Ruffled border Degrades mineral by H+ secreted via ATPase Degrades protein by secretion of enzymes (eg Cathepsin K)
46
Function of integrins in bone resorption
Form barrier at the margin (sealing zone) of the resorption pit to prevent nasty acid and enzymes escaping and breaking down other bone
47
Bone turnover rates and relevance
Complete cortical bone turnover every 15 years Complete trabecular bone turnover every 1.5 years because of greater surface area Therefore formation/resorption imbalances become apparent in trabecular bone much sooner
48
4 mechanisms of control of bone remodelling
Contact dependent Paracrine Endocrine Neuronal
49
Control of osteoclastogenesis
Very destructive cells so their formation needs to be tightly controlled Osteoclastogenesis requires binding of the cytokine RANKL Osteoprotegerin (OPG) produced by osteocytes and osteoblasts prevents RANKL from binding RANK
50
Hormones involved in bone signalling
Sex hormones Thyroid hormone PTH/Calcitonin Vitamin D Others including insulin, leptin, growth hormone
51
Intramembranous ossification
Some bones including flat skull bones (eg frontal bone) form this way No cartilage template is formed Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate directly into osteoblasts
52
Endochondral Ossification
How most bones are formed in embryonic development Also used for growth and healing Bone is deposited onto cartilage template
53
Steps of endochondral ossification
Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into chondrocytes Chondrocytes secrete matrix rich in type II collagen and aggrecan Proliferation, maturation, hypertrophy and death of chondrocytes Formation of primary ossification centre in metaphysis Blood vessels invade allowing OB and OC infiltration Calcified cartilage removed by osteoclasts and replaced with bone Secondary ossification centres form at epiphyses Bone formation continues at epiphyses until skeletal maturity
54
4 stages of fracture healing
Inflammatory - formation of haematoma Reparative - fibrocartilaginous callous formation Bony callus formation Bone remodelling
55
3 components of the nervous system
Sensory - Sensory organs Integration - Brain and spinal cord Response - Muscle and effector glands
56
Somatic nervous system
Voluntary
57
Autonomic nervous system
Involuntary Sympathetic (run away) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)
58
4 neuroglia types and their functions
Microglia - phagocytes to remove necrotic cells Astrocytes - nourish and support neurones Oligodendrocytes - Increase speed of transmission Ependymal cells - Specialised epithelium (eg lining spinal canal
59
3 neurone types
Pseudounipolar Bipolar Multipolar
60
What cells are the myelin sheath composed of?
Schwann cells
61
2 types of neurones in the PNS
Sensory Motor
62
What are neurotransmitters made of?
Peptides or derived from amino acids
63
3 types of neurotransmitter
Excitatory Inhibitory Modulatory
64
Where are neurotransmitters synthesised?
Cell body of the neurone
65
Where are nicotinic receptors
NMJ ANS Pre-ganglionic neurons
66
Where are muscarinic receptors?
Post-ganglionic neurons of parasympathetic nerves
67
Beta 1 receptors
Excitatory Myocardium
68
Beta 2 receptors
Smooth muscle relaxation
69
Alpha 1 receptors
Smooth muscle contraction
70
2 ends of a tendon
Myotendinous junction Osteotendinous junction (enthesis)
71
Are flexor or extensor tendons more prone to injury?
Flexor
72
Functions of ligaments
Skeletal stabilisation Guide joint movement Restrict joint range of motion Some function as proprioceptors
73
Achilles ligament injuries
Common in cats due to trauma and terriers due to degeneration Complete rupture causes a plantigrade stance
74
Cruciate ligament injuries
Common in large dogs Trauma in cats Cranial drawer test NOT while conscious
75
Tendon strusture
Collagen (mainly type 1) microfibrils are banded together to make up crimped collagen fibrils. Collagen fibres and intrafascicular tenocytes make up collagen fibres. These are bundled together within fascicular matrix to form fascicles. These are grouped together along with interfascicular tenocytes to form a fascicle bundle. These are wrapped in interfascicular matrix and all wrapped in epitenon then peritenon.
76
Fibres prevalent in interfascicular matrix
Type III collagen Lubricin Elastin
77
Fibre associated with tendon injury, fibrosis/scarring
Type III collagen
78
Specialisations of energy storing tendons
Greater elongation Greater elasticity
79
Function of energy storing tendons
Store kinetic energy from previous stride as elastic potential energy to be transferred to kinetic energy in next stride
80
Function of positional tendons
Transfer muscle force to bone to generate movement
81
Biomechanical properties of energy storing tendons
Tolerates high strain Low elastic modulus - very extensible
82
Biomechanical properties of positional tendons
Tolerates little strain High elastic modulus - inflexible
83
Extension mechanisms of energy storing tendons
Spring/helix shaped fascicles which allow interfascicular sliding
84
Extension mechanisms of positional tendons
Low capacity for interfascicular sliding More use of interfibrillar sliding
85
Features of previously injured tendon
Disorganised ECM Increased cross sectional area IFM not apparent Inconsistent cellularity Reduced flexibility
86
Two mechanisms of tendon injury
Ageing Overuse
87
Tendon damage from overuse
ECM microdamage Damage to cells both directly and hyperthermia-mediated Limited synthetic ability cannot keep up, leading to accumulation of damage
88
Tendon damage from ageing
Loss of ECM structural specialisations Loss of cellular communication and synthesis
89
Process of signal transduction
Action potential arrives Ca ion influx NT vesicles fuse with cell membrane Exocytosis of NT NT diffuses across synaptic cleft NT binds post-synaptic receptors Excitatory or inhibitory action NTs removed by enzyme degradation or reuptake
90
Acetylcholine
Found in NMJs and autonomic nervous system Either nicotinic or muscarinic
91
Noradrenaline
Acts on adrenoceptors (alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, beta 2)
92
Glutamate
Excitatory In brain
93
Glycine
Inhibitory In spinal cord
94
GABA
Gamma-AminoButryric Acid Inhibitory Found in CNS
95
Proprioception
Sense of position of body parts
96
Kinaesthesia
Sense of movement of body parts
97
Conscious proprioception
Involved in planned skills, learned co-ordinated movement Receptor to spinal/cranial nerves to somatosensory cortex
98
Subconscious/unconscious proprioception
Posture, locomotion and balance Needed for smooth skeletal movement Receptor to cranial nerves to cerebellum/somatosensory cortex
99
4 receptor types
Chemical Mechanical Photo Thermal
100
3 receptor types by location
Extero - external influences eg temperature, pain Intero - internal visceral environment eg stretch, pain Proprio - movement and position of body parts
101
Muscle spindle characteristics
Intrafusal muscle fibres and associated sensory receptors Measure muscle length and rate of muscle length change Responsible for stretch reflex Innervated by muscle spindle afferent (which is a type 1 sensory neuron) and gamma motor neuron Type 1a or Type II sensory endings Central concentration of nuclei (bag or chain)
102
Golgi tendon organ characteristics
Detect tension within tendons Located in tendons attached to skeletal muscle Innervated by type Ib sensory neuron When overstretching occurs, sensory impulse reaches somatosensory complex which sends inhibitory impulses to alpha motor neurons to prevent further stretch
103
Type 1a sensory ending
Annulospiral Primary Innervates nuclear chain or bag
104
Type II sensory ending
Flower spray Secondary Innervates nuclear chain only
105
Muscle spindle response to muscle contraction
Alpha (contracts muscle) and gamma (contracts spindle to take up slack) motor neurons stimulated simultaneously
106
Conscious proprioception deficit
Weightbearing on abnormal part of foot
107
Subconscious proprioception deficit
Abnormal position of limb during standing and locomotion
108
Function of reflex arc
Occur quickly by avoiding the delay of routing signals through the brain
109
Segmental spinal reflex
Goes straight to the spine and back
110
Long spinal reflex
Goes up to the [brainstem?] and back
111
Reciprocal inhibition
Stretch activates muscle spindle Agonist contracts, antagonist relaxes
112
Crossed extensor reflex
Double reciprocal innervation
113
Patellar reflex
Monosynaptic
114
Causes of abnormal patellar reflex test
Muscle damage Nerve damage (gamma, alpha or spinal cord) Conscious control
115

GAB: PAFF (4 decks)

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