Logical Fallacies Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
What is Appeal to Probability?
A
Assuming that some event WILL happen, on the premise that there exist ONLY SOME PROBABILITY of it happening.
2
Q
Why does Appeal to Probability happen?
A
This fallacious conclusion is come to as a way of protecting against loss.
3
Q
Bulletproof question for Appeal to Probability?
A
Is this an absolute or a weighted probability?
If so, what is a realistic estimate of that probability?
4
Q
What is Argument from Fallacy?
A
This is the assumption that the conclusion of an argument is false because the argument contains a logical fallacy.
5
Q
Why does Argument from Fallacy happen?
A
For many people, an argument is a battle more than a search for truth.
6
Q
Bulletproof question for Argument from Fallacy?
A
Are my decisions dismissing viable options due to identification of a fallacious premise?
Is there a different argument that makes this particular option viable?
7
Q
What is Base Rate Fallacy?
A
Tendency to focus on specific information and ignore general information.
8
Q
Why does Base Rate Fallacy happen?
A
People are obsessed with themselves and obsessed with the information in front of them, especially when that information is emotionally relevant.
9
Q
Bulletproof question for Base Rate Fallacy?
A
Do I have a proper grasp of the fundamentals of what I am currently looking at?
What can I do better to master these fundamentals?
Who I can seek advice from to ensure I am actually ready to get advanced?
10
Q
What is Conjunction Fallacy?
A
We assume that more specific conditions are more probable than general conditions.
11
Q
Why does Conjunction Fallacy happen?
A
Always remember that with each new added condition, the likelihood of that outcome is always lower than something with less conditions.
12
Q
Bulletproof question for Conjunction Fallacy?
A
Is one option mathematically less probable than another?
Is there a synergy in options with multi-faceted strategies?
13
Q
What is Masked-Man Fallacy?
A
The fallacy is mostly used when determining what something ACTUALLY IS from what people CLAIM IT TO BE, and can be used to fallaciously create conclusions about what something IS vs what you or anyone else THINKS IT TO BE.
14
Q
Why does Masked-Man Fallacy happen?
A
The reason this situation occurs and why it matters is because people tend to put masks on people they know very well even though they don’t understand the core of human nature.
15
Q
Bulletproof question for Masked-Man Fallacy?
A
How interdependent are the variables that I’m examining?
Are they actually linked or is that an assumption?
Am I drawing conclusions from what I know or what I don’t know?
16
Q
What is Affirming a Disjunct?
A
We assume “or” to be absolutely exclusive, when it can in fact be inclusive.
17
Q
Affirming a Disjunct common form?
A
X or Y
Therefore
Not Y
18
Q
Why does Affirming a Disjunct happen?
A
People are so conditioned to believe that something can be X or Y, A or B, Tall or Short, Hot or Cold, that sometimes people forget to ask “Why not both?”
19
Q
Bulletproof question for Affirming a Disjunct?
A
Am I making a hasty generalization?
Is there another level I’m not seeing?
Does an absence of one condition allow me to make this conclusion?
Is it really zero sum?
20
Q
What is Affirming The Consequent?
A
Practice of using the argument to prove the reverse case of that argument.
21
Q
Affirming The Consequent common form?
A
P -> Q,
Q -X> P
22
Q
Why does Affirming The Consequent happen?
A
Just because you see a cause and effect relationship does not always mean that when you see that effect that there will always be that same cause.
23
Q
Bulletproof question for Affirming The Consequent?
A
Is this the only way to bring about my desired outcome?
Are there other angles to tackle this problem from?
24
Q
What is Denying The Antecedent?
A
Practice of using the argument to prove the inverse case of that argument.
25
Denying The Antecedent common form?
P -> Q,
| X(~P -> ~Q)
26
Why does Denying The Antecedent happen?
Always be more open minded to possible solutions, outcomes, and causal relationships that may actually exist, not just what you assume to exist.
27
Bulletproof question for Denying The Antecedent?
Do I have the evidence to support my conclusion?
Are exceptions or other relationships that may exist that I am currently blind to?
28
What is Existential Fallacy?
Argument that presupposes the existence of a particular class of members.
29
Why does Existential Fallacy happen?
As a result of the visualization, it becomes real, therefore it validates its existence if the subject equates it with reality.
30
Bulletproof question for Existential Fallacy?
Do you have a description of the outcome AND the process to achieve said outcome?
31
What is Exclusive Premises Fallacy?
A fallacy that draws its conclusion from two exclusive premises.
32
Exclusive Premises Fallacy common form?
No X are Y
No Y are Z
Therefore
No Z are X
33
Why does Exclusive Premises Fallacy happen?
This happens because people assume that the premises exclude one another.
34
Bulletproof question for Exclusive Premises Fallacy?
Are my foundational beliefs STILL sound?
Must they be adjusted due to new circumstances?
Are there exceptions which may be at play here?
35
What is the Fallacy of Four Terms?
A categorical syllogism with four terms.
36
Fallacy of Four Terms common form?
If all X in Y
If all Y in Z
Then all W in Z
37
Why does the Fallacy of Four Terms happen?
The reason why this happens is because one could be using the same word but a different meaning of the word each time.
38
Bulletproof question for the Fallacy of Four Terms?
Does a relationship actually exist here?
Are the meanings of the words consistent among your options?
39
What is the Fallacy of The Undistributed Middle?
The middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed.
40
Why does the Fallacy of The Undistributed Middle happen?
The syllogism does not describe how lions relate to seals, so lions and seals are actually unconnected even though one might see this as a syllogism and erroneously connect them as being the same even though they only belong to the same category.
41
Bulletproof question for Fallacy of The Undistributed Middle?
Think in terms of Venn diagrams, and understand where everything fits.
42
What is Poisoning the Well?
When damaging or unhelpful information is given to an audience to defame the person before he is given the chance to speak.
43
Why does Poisoning the Well happen?
Since people are highly influenced by first impressions, if their first impression is a negative one, it will color the remainder of their interpretation in a way that reflects this first impression.
44
Bulletproof question for Poisoning the Well?
Remember the bigger goal and accept that you will have to make some uncomfortable decisions. Sometimes, decisions have been made for you by this poisoning the well.
End this by making a rational stance based on what you believe, not how others have tainted your perception, based on their personal agendas.
45
What is Argument to Moderation?
Flawed reasoning that there is ALWAYS a correct middle ground compromise to any two opposing solutions.
46
Why does Argument to Moderation happen?
The anchoring and fairness biases are put in play here. We already discuss the anchoring effect in the previous week, but if people feel there should be fairness between two sides, then there is a tendency to find a middle ground.
47
Bulletproof question for Argument to Moderation?
Is my reasoning/conclusion valid?
Does it align with objective reality, or am I moderating to a middle ground for the sake of "fairness"?
48
What is Continuum Fallacy?
If X is one extreme, and Y is another, and there is no definable point where X becomes Y, that does not mean there is no difference.
49
Why does Continuum Fallacy happen?
The fallacy arises when people assume “close enough” is equal to “the same” and then use that information to draw broader conclusions that states even further apart on the continuum do not deserve to be categorized.
50
Bulletproof question for Continuum Fallacy?
Could there still be a continuum between these two variables despite there not being an obvious direct correlation on the surface?
51
What is Nirvana Fallacy?
When no PERFECT solution exists, thinking there is no solution worth pursuing.
52
Why does Nirvana Fallacy happen?
People who have perfectionist tendencies will expect a certain quality out of product or service.
53
Bulletproof question for Nirvana Fallacy?
What sort of resources do you REALISTICALLY have at your disposal, including time, money, labor, etc.?
Given these resources, what could you expect the final product to look like?
54
What is Definist Fallacy?
Defining a term in such a way it makes an argument easier to defend.
55
Why does Definist Fallacy happen?
This is simple laziness towards not having rigorous reasoning for defending your position.
56
Bulletproof question for Definist Fallacy?
Am I using neutral language to describe my situation?
Which side do I naturally bias towards?
What happens when I define terms with neutral language?
Do my conclusions change?
57
What is Begging The Question?
A form of argument where the conclusion is assumed in the question.
58
Why does Begging The Question happen?
When making decisions, make sure that your reasons don’t assume the validity of the conclusion, when they should support the validity of your conclusion.
59
Bulletproof question for Begging The Question?
Do my reasons assume or support my decision?
Is my language priming me to fail?
60
What is Circular Reasoning?
Type of reasoning which proposition is supported by premises, which are supported by proposition.
61
Circular Reasoning common form?
X is true because Y,
| And Y is true because of X
62
Why does Circular Reasoning happen?
The reasoning is logically sound, however the argument is weak since the premise is supported by the conclusion it is trying to prove.
63
Bulletproof question for Circular Reasoning?
Do I fully understand my reasoning behind my conclusion?
Was I rash by using reasons that assume the truth of the conclusion?
64
What is False Analogy?
When an analogy is used to prove or disprove an argument, but analogy is too dissimilar to be effective.
65
False Analogy common form?
X is like Y,
And Y has the property P,
Therefore
X has property P
66
Why does False Analogy happen?
The brain stores representations of certain categories, and if the mental representation and emotion represent a certain opinion then people are more likely to let an argument like this pass.
67
Bulletproof question for False Analogy?
Do I have a solid understanding of the topic at hand?
Am I forcing my knowledge of another subject and lying to myself about my 'expertise'?
68
What is Cherry Picking?
Only picking information that supports your case.
69
Why does Cherry Picking happen?
You may have two pieces of evidence, one supports a solution you like, another supports something you don’t like, and you are overweighting the one you like.
70
Bulletproof question for Cherry Picking?
Is my evaluation of the evidence totally objective and honest?
71
What is Accident Fallacy?
Attempting to apply a general solution to situations when there are clearly exceptions.
72
Why does Accident Fallacy happen?
The meaning behind some general advice is applied to a more specific situation, so it SOUNDS correct, especially if the general statement is very commonplace, when in fact it is used improperly, thus an ACCIDENT.
73
Bulletproof question for Accident Fallacy?
Are there exceptions to common beliefs I hold?
What unconventional possibilities could help me solve my problems?
74
What is Misleading Vividness?
Act of describing an event in such great detail that it leaves the listener under the impression that the event happens more often than it really does.
75
Why does Misleading Vividness happen?
People instinctively judge frequency of events by how much of their attention is taken up by them, as opposed to the actual statistics, because the brain collects its own statistics from the real world emotional experience.
76
Bulletproof question for Misleading Vividness?
What are the statistics and data showing that my emotions are turning me away from?
77
What is the Overwhelming Exception?
A generalization that is technically accurate, but has one or more qualifications which eliminate so many cases that the resulting argument is significantly weaker than the author implies.
78
Why does Overwhelming Exception happen?
This occurs when the user is attempting to be logically complete by stating both pros and cons, but in the end refutes himself by overwhelming his conclusion with evidence that is sufficient enough to be contradictory to the original claim.
79
Bulletproof question for Overwhelming Exception?
Am I moving resources from something high ROI to something small ROI?
How can I best find additional resources for the low ROI project?
Is this other project worth pursuing if it could detract from elsewhere?
80
What is Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Fallacy?
Concluding that one thing causes another, simply because they are regularly associated, or more commonly stated as “Correlation does not imply Causation”
81
Why does Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc happen?
Without any other information, the brain will draw a conclusion that one event caused another because they both changed at the same time.
82
Bulletproof question for Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc?
Does a relationship actually exist here?
What data do you have to prove this relationship to be casual?
83
What is Fallacy of The Single Cause?
Assuming a single cause or reason when there were actually multiple causes or reasons.
84
Why does Fallacy of The Single Cause happen?
If there is a reason for a cause that takes up your whole attention span, especially when it is self-serving or emotionally compelling, then one erroneously concludes that this is the only cause.
85
Bulletproof question for Fallacy of The Single Cause?
Am I being over simplistic when looking for a root of cause?
Is there more complexity I am overlooking to avoid extra work and frustration?
86
What is Regression Fallacy?
Ascribing a cause where none exists in situations where natural fluctuations do exist; while failing to account natural fluctuations.
87
Why does Regression Fallacy happen?
The subject is either ignorant, dismissive, or unaware of the baseline that might or might not exist. Combine this with the fact that humans love recognizing patterns, they will erroneously conclude their action had some effect on something that was merely a natural cycle.
88
Bulletproof question for Regression Fallacy?
In this context what are the default settings and conditions?
Are these being factored into my decision-making?
89
What is Argument from Ignorance?
Assumption of conclusion or fact based primarily on lack of evidence on the contrary. “Absence of evidence isn’t evidence of absence”
90
Why does Argument from Ignorance happen?
Just because you are ignorant of premises to support your conclusion and premises that refute your conclusion does not mean that the conclusion should be passively accepted.
91
Bulletproof question for Argument from Ignorance?
Am I preemptively jumping to conclusions?
Do I have enough evidence or only evidence that lacks a contrary conclusion?
92
What is Argument from Incredulity?
Concluding that because you can’t or refuse to believe something, it must not be true, its improbable, or argument must be flawed
93
Why does Argument from Incredulity happen?
People hate admitting they’re wrong or that they were so surprised that they couldn’t believe it to be true, and fail to come up with necessary refutation.
94
Bulletproof question for Argument from Incredulity?
Based on beliefs you harbor from childhood or elsewhere, you may be blind to things that actually help you a lot.
Work to understand your own psychology by considering how your decision connects with your current beliefs.
Give things logical thoughts before dismissing them
95
What is Argument from Repetition?
Repeating an argument or premise over and over again in place of better supporting evidence.
96
Why does Argument from Repetition happen?
People confuse descriptions of something as detailed arguments. You can describe one thing in a number of different ways, but that should not be your only argument for supporting a conclusion.
97
Bulletproof question for Argument from Repetition?
What evidence is repetition, and why do I keep repeating it?
What conclusions am I trying to avoid?
98
What is Argument from Silence?
Drawing a conclusion based on silence of counterparty, when the counterparty is refusing to give evidence of any reason.
99
Why does Argument from Silence happen?
The listener may assume that the conclusion that was presented was common knowledge, because it is not being argued over, so he passively accepts the conclusion.
100
Bulletproof question for Argument from Silence?
Is there enough evidence for me to draw that conclusion in the face of silence?
101
What is the Red Herring Argument?
When a random topic is introduced into an argument in order to divert attention from the topic at hand.
102
Why does Red Herring happen?
They move from argument to argument, losing track of the original, either because they don’t like the subject being discussed, or see they have somehow ‘lost’ and would rather find another topic they could possibly win at.
103
Bulletproof question for Red Herring?
Is this topic or tangent relevant to the decision at hand or am I getting distracted?
104
What is the Straw Man?
When an initial argument gets distorted, and then that distorted idea gets attacked.
105
Straw Man common form?
Argument X is made,
and gets distorted into Y,
Then Y is viciously attacked.
106
Why does Straw Man happen?
When an idea you may be negatively predisposed to is brought up, may distort it and immediately discount it when it could actually present an opportunity.
107
Bulletproof question for Straw Man?
Am I attacking and picking apart relevant information?
Or am I distracted and looking for an easy way out?
108
What is the Ad Hominem Attack?
Basically discounting whatever someone says because of who the person is, rather the argument they’re giving.
109
Why does the Ad Hominem Attack happen?
If someone attacks their expertise, instead of the argument they are making, it would discredit the authority people are giving that person and therefore can actually look at what the person is saying.
110
Bulletproof question for Ad Hominem Attack?
Could there be validity to what someone is saying even if you don't like them?
What if a reasonably intelligent person said the same thing?
111
What is Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy?
Ignoring the difference while focusing on the similarities, thus coming to an inaccurate conclusion.
112
Why does the Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy happen?
Being focused and obsessed on the information in front of them.
113
Bulletproof question for Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy?
Look for where the differences in your decision making may outweigh the similarities you are examining significantly.
Look for the areas you do this to get a lazy outcome rather than the best outcome.
114
What is Always Being Right?
Most people will give up truth, or worse more money or freedom just so they can satisfy their short-term need to be right!
115
What is the distortion of Blaming?
This is yielding ownership to others when things do not go your way, giving them blame for why things did not go right.
116
What is Disqualifying the Positive?
We discount positive events, and mainly focus on negative ones.
117
Why does Disqualifying the Positive happen?
Since people are loss averse, they overemphasize their losses.
118
What is Emotional Reasoning?
We think things are true based on feeling rather than objective reality.
119
What is the Fallacy of Fairness?
Belief life should be fair, and we get angry when it seems unfair.
120
Why does the Fallacy of Fairness happen?
Problem with emotional, social bonding circuit that is used for wrong types of social comparisons.
121
What is Jumping To Conclusions?
We tend to make conclusions with insufficient evidence.
122
What is Labeling and Mislabeling?
A form of overgeneralization; attributing a person’s actions to his or her character instead of an attribute.
123
Why does distortion of Labeling and Mislabeling happen?
The pattern recognition is a way of simplifying the world, and this can come in the form of labels.
124
What is Magnification and Minimization?
We typically exaggerate negative events in our mind while minimizing positive ones.
125
Why does distortion of Magnification and Minimization happen?
Minimization will occur when there is little to no emotionally relevant feedback of the event you are assessing.
126
What is Overgeneralizing?
Taking results of one experience and generalizing it to all experiences like the one you just had.
127
What is Personalizing?
Attributing personal responsibility to events that are not within your control.
128
What are Blind Spots that arise from fallacies?
When you have an incorrect belief that you build your perception of the world on top of.
