Lsat: Reading Comprehension Flashcards
(363 cards)
1
Q
Reading comprehension passages usually contain
A
one Science passage, one Law-Related
passage, and one Humanities passage featuring Diversity. The remaining
passage is usually drawn from a humanities field such as history or
economics, but occasionally the passage comes from science or law.
2
Q
when approaching LSAT passages your
emphasis should be on
A
big picture elements (main point, tone and attitude,
general structure) instead of every detail, and also on the views/viewpoints
presented, both the author’s and those of other people/groups.
3
Q
first read the entire passage with an eye towards capturing
A
the main
ideas, viewpoints, tone, and structure of the passage, and then proceed to
the questions, answering them in order unless you encounter a question too
difficult to answer.
4
Q
all high-scoring LSAT takers read the passage before
A
looking at the questions.
5
Q
At the start of the section, quickly preview the four passage sets, and
A
choose the one you feel most comfortable with from a topic
standpoint.
6
Q
Always read the passage first. Read for
A
an understanding of
structure and detail, viewpoints and themes, and the author’s tone.
7
Q
Many students approach the passages as academic learning exercises
and hope to find some fun new fact or interesting information (don’t
laugh, it happens often!). When you begin reading with the
expectation that you will learn something new, the passage becomes
A
easier to read and more engaging.
8
Q
Some students approach the passages as puzzles to solve, as if they
have been challenged to navigate a maze of sorts (and this is a fairly
accurate description). For certain personalities, the idea of a beatable
challenge stimulates their competitive nature and makes
A
it easier for
them to focus.
8
Q
As a reader, anticipating what will come next in the passage is
A
a habit you should seek to cultivate. . By constantly thinking about the possible directions
the author can take, you will gain a richer perspective on the story being
told and be better prepared for the twists and turns most passages exhibit.
9
Q
Notwithstanding
A
in spite of
10
Q
One of the most powerful weapons the test makers possess is the ability to
A
manipulate language, and specifically to create sentences that contain a
large amount of information while simultaneously being difficult to
understand and interpret.
11
Q
To combat killer sentences, follow these steps as you break them down:
A
Slow down and relax. Recognize that killer sentences are really a collection of connected
thoughts, meaning you can break down the sentence into smaller,
component pieces. To do so, use the punctuation marks in the
sentence as natural separators to. Commas, dashes, semi-colons, and
colons each indicate natural stopping points in the text, and thus you
can usually divide each sentence into more manageable sections. Given that you already know the sentence, or series of sentences, is a
difficult one, make a mark next to the passage (we suggest using a
simple bracket). This helps you keep tabs on where the hardest parts
of the passage are, and also helps you quickly locate those areas if
questions are asked that reference the information.
12
Q
Comma [ , ]:
A
Commas appear in many sentences, and usually are used
to separate ideas in some manner. As such, they are natural stopping
points, and help divide a sentence into smaller pieces. Two commas in a
sentence often bookend a standalone idea that is related to but separate
from the main idea being expressed.
13
Q
Colon [ : ]:
A
A colon typically precedes either an explanation of the point
prior to the colon, or introduces a list of some sort.
14
Q
Semi-colon [ ; ]:
A
The ideas on either side of a semi-colon are related but
also could stand on their own as complete sentences. In this sense, a
semi-colon is stronger than a comma, but less definitive than a period.
15
Q
Parentheses [ ( ) ]:
A
The information in parentheses typically expands
upon and adds additional details to the sentence.
16
Q
Dash [ — ]:
A
Dashes are extremely versatile, and are often substituted
for other punctuation marks (most notably commas, colons, and
parenthesis), but the purpose is typically to set apart a particular idea.
17
Q
“for example
A
typically expands and
clarifies the idea that immediately precedes it, often by providing an individual
instance of a broader idea or belief. Thus, the main idea of the sentence (or the
passage) is not usually in the “for example” section, but instead just before it.
18
Q
At the end of the passage you should be able to answer these
questions:
A
-What is the Main Point of the passage?
-What is the author driving
at?
-Why was this written?
-Which groups are speaking or are talked about in the passage? In
other words, who said what?
-What’s the tone or attitude of each group? Angry? Disappointed?
Neutral?
-What is the very basic position or argument of each group?
-Nothing complex, more along the lines of, “The environmentalist’s
are for the passage of the bill and the opponent’s think the bill will
hurt the economy. The author is neutral.”
-Last, but not least, what’s the structure of the passage? Can you
make a mental map of where the ideas appear in the passage?
19
Q
VIEW =
A
the different VIEWpoints in the passage
19
Q
S=
A
the Structure of the passage
20
Q
T =
A
the Tone of the passage
20
Q
A =
A
the Arguments in the passage
21
Q
MP =
A
the Main Point
22
VIEWSTAMP is a
mental tracking tool that focuses your
attention on the ideas and elements most likely to produce questions.
23
Seek to understand not just what the author said in the paragraph,
but
why the author made those statements. What’s the greater point that’s
being presented? How does each element perform in service to that point?
24
you can summarize the main point in
a single sentence or two at most.
25
The vast majority of Reading Comprehension questions are
Must Be True and Main Point variants. Thus, you are typically on a fact-finding mission when
reading an RC passage. This means you are reading for knowledge and
understanding, and not as much for things such as Assumptions and what
would weaken or strengthen the argument (as in Logical Reasoning).
26
Work to get a grasp of what was said and why, and worry less about
what weaknesses the passage has or what assumptions were made.
26
VIEWSTAMP will take the following order, as this is the
most logical order of analysis:
1. The various groups and viewpoints discussed within the passage.
2. The tone or attitude of each group or individual.
3. The argument made by each group or individual.
4. The main point of the passage.
5. The structure of the passage and the organization of ideas.
26
A viewpoint is
the position or approach taken by a person or group.
27
What is the value of tracking all of the viewpoints in
a given Reading Comprehension passage?
1. Tracking the viewpoints will help you disentangle the mass of
information contained in every Reading Comprehension passage.
2. Within the questions, you will be asked to identify the viewpoints
presented in the passages and to differentiate between those
viewpoints. Answer choices will often present different viewpoints in
order to test your ability to distinguish between groups.
28
An opinion presented without reference to any group is
typically the author’s
opinion.
29
In an effort to confuse test takers, the test makers sometimes introduce
two viewpoints in a single sentence,
29
Tone/Attitude is
the state of mind or feeling that each group
expresses on the subject matter at hand, and for our purposes, “attitude”
and “tone” will be used interchangeably.
29
The author’s attitude is usually revealed through
word choice.
30
Most LSAT authors do not display
an extreme attitude or tone.
31
Note also that tone is representative of the passage
as a whole, and not just
of a single section.
31
the tone exhibited in the last few lines would not
override or outweigh the positive support that the author displayed earlier.
32
In examining attitude, you must
carefully consider the word choices used by
the author of the passage. The rule is that small changes in word choice can
have a large effect on the overall tone of the passage.
33
a premise can be defined as:
“A fact, proposition, or statement from which a conclusion is made."
34
Premises support and
explain the conclusion.
35
the premises give
the reasons why the conclusion should be accepted.
36
To identify premises,
ask yourself,
“What reasons has the author used to persuade me? Why should
I believe this argument? What evidence exists?”
37
A premise gives a reason why
something should be believed.
37
“A statement or judgment that follows from
one or more reasons.”
38
Conclusions, as summary statements, are supposed to be
drawn from and
rest on the premises.
39
A conclusion is the point the author tries to prove by
using another statement.
39
Premise Indicators
Because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by.
40
Conclusion indicators
thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result, so, accordingly, clearly, must be that, shows that, conclude that, follows that.
41
Identifying conclusions often helps in
identifying the main point of a passage.
42
Additional premise Indicators
Furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, what's more, after all.
42
Counter-argument indicators, also called adversatives, bring up
points of
opposition or comparison.
43
Counter-Argument Indicators
but, yet, however, on the other hand, admittedly, in contrast, although, even though, still, whereas, in spite of, despite, after all.
44
the easiest way to determine the
conclusion in an argument is to use the Conclusion Identification
Method
TM:
Take the statements under consideration for the conclusion and place
them in an arrangement that forces one to be the conclusion and the
other(s) to be the premise(s). Use premise and conclusion indicators to achieve this end. Once the pieces are arranged, determine if the arrangement makes logical sense. If so, you have made the correct identification. If not, reverse the arrangement and examine the
relationship again. Continue until you find an arrangement that is the
most logical.
45
an assumption is simply the same
as an unstated premise
—what must be true in order for the argument to be true.
46
assumptions are ideas that are
required for the author’s argument to be
potentially acceptable. They don’t guarantee the correctness of the
argument, but they do prevent the argument from being immediately
dismissible as false
47
assumptions can often have a great effect on the
validity of the argument.
48
an
inference is
what follows from a set of known premises (in other words, a
conclusion)
48
whereas an assumption is
what is taken for granted while
making an argument.
49
In one sense, an assumption occurs “before” the
argument, that is, while the argument is being made. An inference is made
“after” the initial information is known, and follows from given
facts/argument.
50
The makers of the LSAT love to use complex argumentation because the
presence of
multiple conclusions tends to confuse test takers, making attractive
wrong answer choices easier to create.
51
Quantity Indicators
All, every, most, many, some, several, few, sole, only, not all, none.
51
Probability Indicators
Must, will, always, not always, probably, likely, would, not necessarily, could, rarely, never.
52
Quantity Indicators refer to the
amount or quantity in the relationship,
such as “some people” or “many of the laws.”
53
Probability indicators refer to
the
likelihood of occurrence, or the obligation present
54
Indicator lists are important for several reasons:
1. They help you identify the main elements of the author’s argument.
2. They help you identify supplementary argument points made by the
author.
3. They show you when the author introduces viewpoints other than his
or her own.
4. They alert you to changes in the direction of the argument.
5. They alert you to the strength of the various points made by the
author.
55
The main point of a passage is
the central idea, or ultimate conclusion, that the author is attempting to prove.
56
Although in the majority of passages the
main point is
stated in the first paragraph, it is not always the case that the main point appears the very outset.
57
The main point of many passages has
appeared in the
final sentence of the first paragraph or in the first sentence
of the second paragraph, or, at times, in the last paragraph.
58
although
the main point is often found early in the first paragraph, the test makers
have the ability to
place the main point anywhere in the passage.
59
The main point of a passage is
the central idea that the author is attempting to
prove or relay.
60
Built into your test taking strategy should be the
expectation that you will frequently
return to the passage during the
questions to confirm and disconfirm answer choices.
61
Some passages open by stating the background of a
thesis that will be challenged later in the passage. In the following
paragraphs the author will then present an alternative viewpoint to the
thesis and perhaps specific counterexamples which provide support for the
alternative view. Awareness of this general structure will
allow you to
reduce the time you spend searching for information when you need to refer
back to the text.
61
You simply need to get the gist of what is occurring in the
paragraph so you can
quickly return if needed to answer a question.
61
"Lawyers are concerned about the plan’s effect on prices; directors of
the plan claim that everyone benefits." Should a question ask about the views of lawyers,
you would know to return to the
Paragraph that states this view.
61
Your structural analysis must be
compact enough to be mentally
retained, and it must also provide enough basic detail to serve as a guide when you return to the passage.
61
When you encounter unknown words, they will fall into one of two
categories:
new terms related to the concept under discussion or
unknown vocabulary words.
61
In the case of terms related to the concept under discussion, the test makers will
explain the term or concept for you in the text, sometimes briefly using
synonyms, other times in greater detail. Unknown vocabulary words
can be more challenging, but you can use context clues from the surrounding text to help determine the meaning of words you do not
recognize.
61
A common and easy
way for the test makers to increase difficulty is
to add more viewpoints.
61
The more viewpoints present, the easier
it is for
readers to confuse them, or forget who said what.
61
when more viewpoints are present, the test
makers typically
insert extensive compare-and-contrast sections, which makes separating and mastering each view more difficult.
61
The difficulty of a passage set is also affected by
the nature of the
questions.
61
if you can tell after reading the first few lines of
a passage that it looks particularly challenging, consider
moving on to
another passage.
61
This test makers’ weapon (the order of the passages) is one of the easiest to
overcome: If you know
that the passages might not be presented in ideal order,
simply choose your favorites first.
62
Some students prefer the comparative reading passages, which tend to be
shorter, so those are
the first they consider when beginning the Reading
Comprehension section.
63
In reality, within 10 to 15 seconds of reading a passage (not skimming), it is often possible to
assess two key factors:
1. Whether or not the topic is one of inherent interest to you.
2. Whether the passage is written in a style that you find relatively easy
to understand from the outset
64
Separating viewpoints allows you to
divide the passage into logical,
trackable components, and helps you to more easily understand the passage
and to disentangle the many disparate ideas presented.
65
Viewpoints also play
a central role in
the main themes of the passage, so naturally they serve as the source of many of the questions asked by the test makers.
66
while reading you must always focus on
identifying
each viewpoint in the passage.
67
Competing perspectives offer
differing opinions on the same subject.
68
When considering viewpoints, be aware that one of the test makers’ favorite
tricks is to
use competing perspectives, a tactic that involves presenting two
or more viewpoints on the same subject, with each view containing slightly
different elements (while also offering moments of overlap and similarity).
69
Since competing perspectives can be quite tricky to follow it is easy to
confuse or misremember different views in the context of entire passages it
should come as no surprise that questions about these elements closely test
whether you understand the exact differences between the various
viewpoints on offer.
70
text-based questions will often be
smaller pieces,
sometimes just a single word, other times a short section of the text.
71
Note these elements as you encounter them in the passages; you are likely to see
them again in the questions
1. Initial Information/Closing Information
2. Dates and Numbers
3. Definitions
4. Examples
5. Difficult words or phrases
6.Enumerations/Lists
7. Text Questions
72
the information presented in the last five lines is
often forgotten
because the average student is eager to jump to the questions and thus
skims over the material at the very end of the passage.
73
they occasionally
question you on your knowledge of information seen at
the very beginning
or end of the passage.
74
When an LSAT author references more than one date or era, creating a
simple
timeline can be an effective way to maintain relative perspective, whether the
comparisons span days or centuries.
75
Dates often provide
useful markers within a passage, allowing you “before”
and “after” points to return to when searching for answers.
76
While in some
passages the use of dates is incidental, in other passages,
a clear chronology
is created, and then some of the questions will test your ability to
understand the timeline.
77
The general rule is that the more dates you see in a passage, particularly if they are given in regular intervals or serve as identifiers of progress or
change, the
more important it is that you make note of them.
78
Numbers are usually less important than
dates, but when numbers are used
in a comparative sense, or as part of an explanation, the test makers will
sometimes check your comprehension of their meaning.
79
Whenever you see a brand new term or concept defined, be sure to
take note; if
the test makers have provided a clear definition or description, they generally
expect you to be able to locate the reference.
80
LSAT authors often use examples to
explain or underscore or even attempt
to prove the points, they are making.
81
Examples are not the
main conclusion or point of the author; the point being
supported or explained by the example is the author’s central belief.
82
generally, examples are provided to
support or explain the main
conclusion.
83
The words “for example” are the most common way that examples are
introduced, but the following terms all have been used:
For example
For instance
A case in point is
As shown by
As demonstrated by
84
A number of passages feature sections where the author presents a view by
providing a list of points that support or explain the position, or that are
possible outcomes of a course of action. When these lists occur, you are
almost always tested on your understanding of some or all of the items on
the list.
85
when a
passage contains a list of two or more items, chances are
nearly 100% that
at least one question will be asked in reference to it.
86
The listed items do not appear as bullet points. Rather, they tend appear
using constructions similar to one of the following:
“First...Second...Third...”
“First...Second...In addition...”
“First...Second...Third...Last...”
“(1)...(2)...”
“Initially...And...Further...”
“One possibility is...another possibility is...A final possibility...”
87
The lists usually contain one of two types of items:
A list of reasons
(premises) that explain why an action was taken or why a circumstance
came into being, or a list of examples that relate to the point at hand.
88
lists usually contain one of two types of items:
a list of reasons
(premises) that explain why an action was taken or why a circumstance
came into being, or a list of examples that relate to the point at hand.
89
When reading, you must be prepared to encounter lists of items that are not
clearly marked as such in the text.
90
Any time an author presents
a series of examples (or a series of anything, for that matter), you should
recognize it and expect to refer back to it when you begin answering the
questions.
91
When an author poses a question in the passage, in most instances the
author goes on to immediately
answer that question.
92
tracking the
presence of text questions is critical because it
provides you with an outline
for where the passage will go next.
92
because these questions are often
central to the theme of the passage, there is usually a
post-passage question
that centers on the answer to the question the author posed.
93
Most often, text questions are raised in the
traditional, explicit manner, with
a question mark,
94
Text questions can be explicitly or implicitly
presented in the passage.
95
The cause is the event that makes
the other occur; the effect is the event that follows from the
cause.
96
Cause and effect reasoning asserts or denies that
one thing causes
another, or that one thing is caused by another.
97
By definition, the cause must occur before
the effect, and the
cause is the “activator” or “ignitor” in the relationship.
98
The effect
always happens at
some point in time after the cause.
99
Causality in Reading Comprehension usually is discussed in the context
of
why certain events occurred.
100
The terms that typically introduce
causality—such as caused by, reason for, led to, or product of—are still
used, but then the author often
goes on to discuss the reasons behind
the occurrence in depth.
101
Causality, when it appears in Reading Comprehension, is not normally
viewed as
inherently flawed reasoning, and LSAT authors usually
make an effort to explain the thinking behind their causal assertions.
102
Conditional reasoning is the broad name given to
logical relationships
composed of sufficient and necessary conditions.
103
Any conditional
relationship consists of
at least one sufficient condition and at least one
necessary condition.
104
A sufficient condition is an event or circumstance
whose occurrence indicates
that a necessary condition must also occur.
105
A necessary condition is an event or circumstance whose
occurrence is
required in order for a sufficient condition to occur.
106
if a sufficient condition occurs, you automatically know that
the necessary condition also occurs.
107
If a necessary condition occurs, then it is possible but not
certain that the sufficient condition will occur.
108
Conditional reasoning is
the broad name given to logical relationships
composed of sufficient and necessary conditions.
109
Any conditional
relationship consists of
at least one sufficient condition and at least one
necessary condition.
110
A sufficient condition is
an event or circumstance
whose occurrence indicates that a necessary condition must also occur.
111
A necessary condition is an
event or circumstance whose occurrence is
required in order for a sufficient condition to occur.
112
if a sufficient condition occurs, you automatically know that
the necessary condition also occurs.
113
If a necessary condition occurs, then it is possible but not
certain that the sufficient condition will occur.
114
However, if a necessary condition fails to occur, you then
know that the
sufficient condition cannot occur either.
115
Conditional relationships in Reading Comprehension passages tend to
be
unobtrusive, usually occurring as a sideline point to a larger
argument.
116
conditionality is usually not the focus or Main
Point of a passage, but instead it is
a type of reasoning that occurs
while discussing or supporting other points.
117
When either of the two reasoning types are present, they are usually
discussed in
more expansive terms, and the causal or conditional argument
is broad and seldom based on single words or sentences.
118
causal or conditional reasoning assertions need not be limited to
a single
paragraph; entire passages can be built around a single causal or
conditional idea.
119
Traps of Similarities and Distinctions
This trap occurs when, in a continuous section of text, an author discusses
in detail items that have both similarities and differences. By comparing
and contrasting the items in close proximity, the test makers create a
greater likelihood for confusion (by comparison, if the discussion of the
concepts were separated into discrete sections, the information would be easier to keep clear).
120
If a list of comparisons and contrasts starts to get complicated, a simple note on
your scratch paper allows you to
keep that section in
perspective and move on to the rest of the passage.
121
Trap of Separation
One favorite trick of the test makers is to take a long discussion of a
particular topic and break it up by inserting within it a section of text about
a related but distinct topic, effectively creating a separation effect: the main
idea bisected by similar but different (and possibly distracting) content in the middle. Then in the questions, the test makers require you to follow and
understand the bigger-picture discussion, testing your ability to track the interrupted main concept despite its beginning and end being divided by
many lines (or entire paragraphs) in the passage.
122
The Trap of Question Misdirection occurs when
the test makers use a specific
line reference in the question stem to direct you to a place in the passage where
the correct answer will not be found.
123
One reason this trick works is that there is a natural tendency on the part of
readers to assume
that pieces of information that are related should be in
close proximity.
124
Trap of Proximity
Just because two ideas are presented in close physical proximity to one
another within a passage does not mean that they are related.
125
Trap of Inserted Alternate Viewpoint
Another ploy the test makers favor is to present several different viewpoints
in a single passage, even a single paragraph, forcing readers to track both
the topical information and the various perspectives.
126
Traps of Chronology
Traps of chronology relate to the placement and order of items within the
passage, and the tendency of many readers to believe that when one item is presented before another, then the first item occurred first or caused the
second item.
127
Trap of Order
Some students make the mistake of believing that because an event or
situation is discussed before another event, the first event likely
predated the second item. Unless explicitly stated or inherently
obvious, this does not have to be the case.
128
Trap of Cause
Some students also mistakenly assume that when one scenario is
discussed before another, then the first item must have caused the
second item. This assumption is unwarranted. The easiest way to
discern the author’s intention is to carefully examine the language used
because causal relationships almost always feature one or more of the
words that indicate causality (such as caused by, produced by, determined, etc).
129
As you develop the ability to see through the topic and focus on the writing
style, you will
notice that many passages are not as complex as their topics
might suggest.
130
Passage difficulty is more a function of
writing style, the number of
viewpoints, and the exact concepts under discussion than of the general
topic of the passage.
131
You should not assume that a
passage will be easy or hard solely from
its topic, and certainly not from reading just the first line or paragraph. The test makers love to play with the expectations of test takers, and one of their favorite tricks is to turn those expectations on their head.
132
While reading, you should constantly track
the five major VIEWSTAMP elements.
133
Most students make some marks and notes on and around the text as they read. These notations, when created in an organized and purposeful fashion,
provide a
“visual summary” of the passage. This “summary” not only helps
to mentally organize the structure and flow of the passage, but it also saves valuable time when returning to the text because the location of desired information is more obvious. As such, an effective approach to passage diagramming can help you to answer the questions more effectively and efficiently.
134
Good notations help to
direct you efficiently when you return to the passage.
135
Make sure to read each question stem very carefully. Some stems direct you to focus on
certain areas of the passage and if you miss these clues, the problem
becomes much more difficult.
136
Location can be divided into three categories
Specific Reference, Concept Reference, and Global Reference:
137
Specific Reference (SR). These question stems refer you to
a specific numbered line, paragraph, or sentence.
138
“The author of the passage uses the phrase ‘rational expectations’ (line39) primarily in order to”
Specific Reference (SR)
139
“Which one of the following best defines the word ‘pragmatic’ as it is
used in the second paragraph of the passage?”
Specific Reference (SR)
140
“Which one of the following would best exemplify the kind of theory
referred to in the final paragraph of the passage?”
Specific Reference (SR)
141
To attack Specific Reference questions, return to
the passage and start reading
three to five lines above the reference, or from the most logical nearby starting point such as the start of a paragraph.
142
Although the correct information in a Specific Reference question is not always found in the exact lines referenced, those line references are always
an excellent starting point for your analysis.
143
To attack Specific Reference questions that refer to an exact line number or sentence, always return to the passage and start reading
three to five lines above the reference, or from the most logical nearby starting point such as the start of a paragraph. To attack Specific Reference questions that refer to a paragraph, return to the passage and consider the paragraph in question.
144
Concept Reference (CR).
Some questions refer you to ideas or themes
within the passage that are not identified by a specific line or paragraph reference, but that are identifiable because the ideas are clearly enunciated or expressed within one or two areas of the passage.
145
A thorough understanding of the organization of the passage allows for quick access to
the information necessary to attack Concept Reference questions.
146
Global Reference (GR).
Global Reference questions ask about the passage
as a whole, or they fail to identify a defined area or isolated concept within the question stem.
147
“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?”
Global Reference (GR).
148
“The primary purpose of the passage is to...”
Global Reference (GR).
149
“Information in the passage most strongly supports which one of the
following statements?”
Global Reference (GR).
150
Although they might at first seem intimidating, many Global questions can be answered from
your initial reading of the passage.
151
Understanding the “big picture” is vital, since
at least half of the questions on any given passage are likely to be Global Reference questions.
152
Note that not every question stem that refers to a concept is
a Concept Reference question.
153
Frequency of SR Questions:
25 - 30% overall
154
Frequency of CR Questions:
25 - 30% overall
155
Frequency of GR Questions:
40 - 50% overall
156
After establishing Location, the next element you must identify when
reading question stems is the type of question that you face.
157
You must correctly analyze and classify every question stem because
the question stem ultimately determines the nature of the correct answer choice.
158
Must Be True questions ask you to
identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the passage.
159
“If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?”
Must Be True/Most Supported
160
“Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the
passage?”
Must Be True/Most Supported
161
Must Be True is the premier question category in the Reading Comprehension section, and that reflects the directness of your task:
knowing what you read and what it tells you.
162
Must Be True questions are the dominant type in the Reading
Comprehension section;
over 75% of the questions you face in each
section can be categorized as Must Be True.
163
Fact Test:
the correct answer to a Must Be True question can always be proven by referring to the facts stated in the passage.
164
Many of the Must Be True questions in the Reading Comprehension
section ask you to
perform a more specific action, such as to identify
the author’s viewpoint or the function of a word or phrase.
165
Main Point questions are a variant of Must Be True questions. As you
might expect, a Main Point question asks you to
find the primary focus of the passage.
166
“The main point of the argument is that...”
main point
167
Main Point questions most often appear as
the very first question in
each passage set.
168
the operation of finding facts and proving conclusions
represents over
85% of the questions in a Reading Comprehension
section.
169
Strengthen
These questions ask you to select the answer choice that provides
support for the author’s argument or strengthens it in some way.
170
“Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?”
Strengthen
171
“Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the
statement above?”
Strengthen
172
Weaken
Weaken questions ask you to attack or undermine the author’s
argument.
173
“Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the
argument?”
Weaken
174
Considered together, Strengthen and Weaken questions only appear
about 5% of the time.
174
“Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?”
Parallel Reasoning
175
Parallel Reasoning
Parallel Reasoning questions ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus.
176
“If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?”
Cannot Be True
176
Cannot Be True questions ask you to
identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus.
177
Must Be True questions require you to select an answer choice that is proven by the information presented in the passage. The correct answer choice can be a
paraphrase of part of the passage or it can be a logical
consequence of one or more parts of the passage. However, when selecting an answer, you must find the proof from the passage that supports it.
178
Must Be True questions are, by far, the most important Reading
Comprehension question type, representing approximately
75% of all of the questions in each section. Thus, to achieve a high score, you must dominate Must Be True.
179
The vast majority of the questions in the Reading Comprehension section are
Must Be True questions.
180
The correct answer to a Must Be True question can always be proven
by
referring to the facts stated in the passage.
181
Must Be True questions are considered the foundation of the LSAT because
the skills required to answer Must Be True are also required for every other LSAT question: read text, and understand the facts that logically follow.
182
Because every question type relies on the fact-finding skill used to answer Must Be True questions, your performance with Must Be True dictates
your overall Reading Comprehension score.
183
The prevalence of Must Be True questions is incredibly beneficial to you as a test taker because
the answer to all Must questions resides directly in the text of
each passage.
184
To attack Specific Reference questions that refer to a paragraph,
return to
the passage and consider the paragraph in question.
185
Concept Reference
With Concept Reference Must Be True questions, you must return to the areas in the passage mentioned in the question stem and quickly review the information. These questions are more vague than Specific Reference questions and so you must rely on your passage diagramming or memory to return to the correct area.
186
A complete understanding of any passage requires that you identify the
main point, even in the rare case that a passage does not include a Main Point question.
186
Global Reference
Global Must Be True questions are usually Main Point, Purpose, or
Organization questions (this subtype will be discussed n a few pages), and you will typically not need to refer back to the passage prior to attacking the answer choices because you should already know the answer from your reading.
187
Percentage of passages containing a Main Point Question:
75%
188
When you encounter Main Point questions in
Reading Comprehension, always
prephrase an answer, but prepare to be a
bit more open-minded as you consider the choices provided.
189
“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?”
Main Point
190
“Which one of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage?”
Main Point
191
To determine the reasons behind the author’s use of words or ideas, refer to
the context around the reference, using context clues and your knowledge of the viewpoints and structure of the passage.
191
Two types of incorrect answers frequently appear with Main Point
questions:
1. Answers that are true but do not encapsulate the author’s point.
2. Answers that repeat portions of the passage but not the Main Point.
191
Historically, Purpose/Function questions have comprised approximately
1/5 of all Reading Comprehension questions.
192
Purpose questions ask why
the author referred to a particular word, phrase, or idea.
193
“The author of the passage uses the phrase “clearly insufficient” (line
39) primarily in order to...”
Purpose
194
“The author’s discussion of feline maternal instinct (lines 23-34)
functions primarily to...”
Purpose
195
“The author’s discussion of increased erosion over the last decade
serves primarily to...”
Purpose
196
“Which one of the following best states the function of the third
paragraph of the passage?”
Purpose
197
Global Purpose questions are almost always phrased using the words
“primary purpose” and ask for the author’s main purpose in writing the passage. These questions ask you to describe why the author wrote the passage, and the correct answer is often an abstract version of the main point (and if not, at the very least the answer to a Global Purpose question will agree with the Main Point).
198
“The primary purpose of the passage is to...”
Global Purpose
199
“In the passage, the author seeks primarily to...”
Global Purpose
200
Percentage of passages containing a Perspective Question:
95%
201
Perspective Questions this category contains questions about two of the five VIEWSTAMP
elements
viewpoints and tone. These two elements are very closely related, and we combine these two elements in our question classification, using the term “perspective” to capture the idea behind both elements.
202
Perspective questions can be divided into two categories:
questions that ask about the author’s views and tone, and questions that ask about the views and tone of one of the other groups discussed in the passage.
203
Understanding the author’s viewpoint is an
integral part of mastering any
passage.
204
About 25% of Reading Comprehension questions concern
the Author’s Perspective.
205
Author’s Perspective questions ask you to
select the answer choice that best reflects the author’s views on a subject or the author’s attitude
toward a subject.
206
“The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following statements?”
Author’s Perspective Questions (AP)
207
“It can be inferred that the author of the passage believes which one of the following about the history of modern art?”
Author’s Perspective Questions (AP)
208
“It can be reasonably inferred from the passage that the author’s
attitude is most favorable toward which one of the following?”
Author’s Perspective Questions (AP)
209
Subject Perspective questions make up about
10% of Reading Comprehension
questions overall.
210
Subject Perspective questions
ask you to
select the answer choice that best reflects the views or
attitude of one of the other groups in the passage. Because identifying all views is a critical part of your strategy when reading, you should be well-prepared for these questions.
211
“Given the information in the passage, which one of the following is
Kantor most likely to believe?”
Subject Perspective Questions (SP)
212
“It can be inferred that Peter Goodrich would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following statements concerning common law?”
Subject Perspective Questions (SP)
213
These questions are considered Must Be True questions because the
correct answer follows directly from the statements in the passage.
Subject Perspective Questions (SP)
214
Organization Questions (O)
These questions usually appear in reference to either a specific paragraph or to the passage as a whole, and refer less frequently to specific lines. At a specific paragraph level, you will either be asked to identify the structure of the paragraph, or to identify how one paragraph relates to another paragraph.
215
Percentage of passages containing an Organization Question:
25%
215
“Which one of the following most accurately describes the relationship between the second paragraph and the final paragraph?”
Organization Questions (O)
216
“Which one of the following best describes the organization of the
passage?”
Organization Questions (O)
217
“Which one of the following most accurately describes the organization of the material presented in the second and third paragraphs of the passage?”
Organization Questions (O)
218
“Which one of the following most accurately describes the organization of the material presented in the passage?”
Organization Questions (O)
219
“Which one of the following sequences most accurately and completely corresponds to the presentation of the material in the passage?”
Organization Questions (O)
220
Percentage of passages containing an Expansion Question:
10%
221
“Which one of the following would be most suitable as a title for this
passage if it were to appear as an editorial piece?”
Expansion Questions (E)
222
Expansion questions require you to extrapolate ideas from the passage to determine one of three elements:
where the passage was drawn from or how
it could be titled, what sentence or idea could come before the passage, and what sentence or idea could follow the passage.
223
“If this passage had been excerpted from a longer text, which one of the following predictions regarding the future of aeronautics would be most likely to appear in that text?”
Expansion Questions (E)
223
“Which one of the following titles most completely summarizes the
contents of the passage?”
Expansion Questions (E)
224
“Which one of the following sentences would most logically begin a
paragraph immediately following the end of the passage?”
Expansion Questions (E)
225
Questions about the title or source of the passage typically reflect
the Main Point of the passage.
225
Two types of answers that will always be
correct in a Must Be True question and any Must Be True subtype (except for Main Point questions, as discussed previously).
1. Paraphrased Answers
2. Combination Answers
225
“Which one of the following is the most logical continuation of the last paragraph of the passage?”
Expansion Questions (E)
225
“Which one of the following sentences could most logically be
appended to the end of the last paragraph of the passage?”
Expansion Questions (E)
225
Questions asking you to identify pre- or post-passage
sentences, however, are usually
immediately dependent upon the two or
three sentences at the beginning or end of the passage, and then more generally dependent upon the passage as a whole. These questions can be difficult because they ask you to infer the flow and direction of the passage from a somewhat limited set of clues.
225
Combination Answers
Answers that are the sum of two or more passage statements.
Any answer choice that would result from combining two or more
statements in the passage will be correct.
225
Paraphrased Answers are answers that
restate a portion of the passage
in different terms.
225
Incorrect Answers in Must Be True Questions
1. Could Be True or Likely to Be True Answers
2. Exaggerated Answers
3. “New” Information Answers
4. The Shell Game
5. The Opposite Answer
6. The Reverse Answer
7. The Wrong View
8. Hidden References
226
Non-Must Be True Questions appear approximately
12% of the time.
227
Percentage of passages containing a Strengthen Question:
8%
228
Strengthen questions ask you to identify the answer choice that best
supports a section of the passage or a particular view from the passage.
229
In strengthen the correct answer choice does not necessarily
prove the argument beyond a
shadow of a doubt, nor is the correct answer choice necessarily an
assumption of the argument. The correct answer choice simply helps the argument in some way.
230
“Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the
author’s position regarding the practical applicability of the theory
presented in the passage?”
Strengthen
231
“Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the claim
made by the author in the last sentence of the passage (lines 54-58)?”
Strengthen
232
How to Strengthen an Argument
1. Identify what you are trying to strengthen!
2. Personalize the argument.
3. Look for weaknesses in the argument.
4. Remember that the correct answer can strengthen the argument just a little or a lot. This variation is what makes these questions difficult.
232
“Which one of the following, if true, would lend the most support to the claims of critics discussed in lines 9-17?”
Strengthen
233
Strengthen three Incorrect Answer Traps
1. Opposite Answers.
2. Shell Game Answers.
3. Out of Scope Answers.
234
Weaken questions require you to
select the answer choice that undermines a
position as decisively as possible.
234
Percentage of passages containing a Weaken Question:
14%
235
LSAT can use a variety of words to indicate
that your task is to weaken the argument:
weaken, attack, undermine, refute, argue against, call into question, cast doubt, challenge, damage, counter
235
“Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken Hart’s
argument regarding the recently excavated fossils?”
Weaken
236
“Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously challenge the position of the critics mentioned in line 34?”
Weaken
237
Parallel Reasoning questions ask you to
identify the answer choice that
contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning in a section of the passage.
237
When approaching Weaken questions, always remember to:
1. Isolate and assess the position you are attacking. Only by
understanding the structure of the position can you gain the
perspective necessary to attack that position.
2. Know the details of what was said in the passage.
3. Accept the answer choices as given, even if they include “new”
information
238
The typical Reading Comprehension
Parallel Reasoning question asks you to
parallel the structure of a section or
paragraph, and thus you usually need only understand the basic outline of what occurred in the section. Then, select the answer choice that contains the same structure. If you find yourself choosing between two or more answer choices, then simply compare some of the other elements in the passage—intent of the author or group, force and use of premises, the relationship of the premises to a conclusion, and the soundness of the argument.
239
“Which one of the following is most analogous to the artistic
achievements that the author attributes to Mangino?”
Parallel Reasoning
240
“As described in the passage, the approach suggested by the
Modernists is most similar to which one of the following?”
Parallel Reasoning
241
“Based on the passage, the relationship between attorney and client is most analogous to the relationship between:”
Parallel Reasoning
242
Percentage of passages containing a Cannot Be True Question:
16%
243
Question types that appear infrequently, such as Cannot Be True (which occur in about 3% of all questions), tend to
consume more time because students are not
used to seeing those types of questions.
244
When you encounter a Cannot Be True question, you must mentally prepare yourself to
eliminate answers that could be true or that are possible, and select the one answer choice that cannot be true or that is impossible.
245
Percentage of passages containing a Principle Question:
13%
246
Principle questions (PR) are not a separate question type but are instead an
“overlay” that appears in a variety of question types.
247
The word “proposition” or “precept” can be used in place of
“principle.”
248
“Given the information provided in the second paragraph, the author
can most reasonably be said to use which one of the following
principles to support the scientists’ claims?
“principle.”
249
“Which one of the following principles can be most clearly said to
underlie the author’s arguments in the third paragraph?”
“principle.”
250
A principle is a broad rule that specifies
what actions or judgments are
correct in certain situations.
251
Because a principle is by definition a broad rule
(usually conditional in
nature), the presence of the Principle indicator serves to broaden the scope of the question. The question becomes more abstract, and you must analyze the problem to identify the underlying relationships. Functionally, you must take a broad, global proposition and apply it in a specific manner, either to the answer choices (as in a Must or Parallel question) or to the passage (as in a Strengthen or Weaken question).
252
One of the most effective techniques for quickly finding correct answer choices and avoiding incorrect answer choices is
prephrasing.
253
Prephrasing an answer involves
quickly speculating on what you expect the correct answer will be based on the information in the passage.
254
Prephrasing is the LSAT version of the old adage,
“An ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure.”
255
Global Reference questions will almost always have incorrect answers that then refer to
attitudes or ideas from only one or two paragraphs (in
other words, answers that capture only part of the overall attitude
being expressed). This Global/Specific distinction can often trap
unwary test takers who don’t realize the scope of what they are being
asked about.
256
A favorite tactic is to have an answer that perfectly captures the ideas or viewpoint of a group in the passage, but not
the group the question specifies.
257
As you examine the passages, remember that they will
relate to each other in some way, and will almost always have at least one or two points of both conflict and agreement.
258
As you examine the passages, remember that they will relate to each other in some way, and will almost always have at least one or two points of both conflict and agreement:
authors are never in complete accord, however
even in instances where the authors seem fiercely opposed, some common ground is all but guaranteed. Thus, finding moments of overlap and uniqueness is the key to performing well in Comparative Reading.
259
Difficulty of the subject matter is the same for single and dual
passages, and the subject matter will be drawn from the same disciplines: humanities, social sciences, biological and physical
sciences, and issues related to law
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
259
General reading strategy remains the same
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
259
The primary goal for Comparative Reading is to identify
the main point and purpose of each passage and then to relate those ideas to each other, focusing on the passages’ similarities and differences.
260
Dual passage length and the number of accompanying questions
are comparable to those of a single passage, so the total amount of
reading is similar
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
260
Question difficulty is roughly equivalent for single and dual
passages
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
261
Question types are generally similar to those seen in the single
passages, however the emphasis is more on global questions (main
point, author’s attitude, function) and passage relationship
questions (as we’ll soon see) in comparative reading
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
262
The same reading challenges, sources of difficulty, and trap
answers appear in all passages types
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
263
Questions should be answered exclusively on the basis of the
information provided in the selection(s); no specific, subject-based
knowledge is necessary
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
264
Single and dual passages can all be diagrammed in the same ways
Similarities between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single
Passages
265
There are two related passages in Comparative Reading as
opposed to a single passage
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
265
The majority of the Comparative Reading questions deal with the
relationship between the two passages, while single passage
questions tend to have a higher percentage of local questions
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
266
Two authors contribute to the reading selection in comparative
reading, while single passage selections are drawn from only one
author
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
267
The theme or main point of the Comparative Reading passages
will often change from passage A to passage B, as opposed to the
more consistent, singular purpose of an author in a single passage
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
268
The complexity of argumentation in each of the dual passages
tends to be less than the complexity developed in a single passage.
This is logical because there are fewer words in each of the
individual dual passages
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
268
The ability to compare and contrast is paramount to success in
Comparative Reading; success in singular passage reading
comprehension is largely dependent upon a reader’s ability to
identify passage structure and organization
Differences between Comparative Reading Passage Sets and Single Passages
269
Comparative Reading questions are generally the same
as
single passage set questions, with the difference that the emphasis is
on how well you can understand the similarities and differences between the two passages.
270
You must be aware of how the passages are
similar and how they differ.
270
You must be aware of how the passages are
similar and how they differ.
271
since many of the questions that follow dual passages test
your compare and contrast abilities, we cannot
overstress the importance of
keeping track of precisely where the authors are alike and where they
differ.
272
since many of the questions that follow dual passages test
your compare and contrast abilities, we cannot overstress the importance of
keeping track of precisely where the authors are alike and where they
differ.
273
Comparative Reading questions are generally the same
as
single passage set questions, with the difference that the emphasis is
on how well you can understand the similarities and differences between the two passages.
274
After reading Passage A, pause briefly to organize your thoughts about what you have just read and then go and
complete each question that is focused solely on Passage A. Then go back and read Passage B with the intention of
both understanding B on its own and establishing the relationship between the two authors. After completing Passage B, attempt each question that focuses solely on Passage B (again, there will likely be at least one).
275
You must know with a reasonable degree of certainty what each speaker believes strictly from what is written. Success relies on
choosing answers about which the views of the sources are both known and in direct opposition of one another.
276
“The authors would be most likely to disagree over whether”
Point at Issue
277
“On the basis of their statements, the authors of Passage A and Passage B are committed to disagreeing over whether”
Point at Issue
278
Finding the correct answer in most Point at Issue questions involves
examining the conclusion of each speaker.
279
When a pair of passages address an issue that is ethical (or motivation, behavioral, etc.) in nature,
answer choices that are strictly factual cannot be correct.
280
Dual Agreement or Dual Disagreement
Often, incorrect answer choices will supply statements that both
authors agree with, or that both authors disagree with.
280
Disagreements over facts occur infrequently because they are
generally easy for students to spot, so be prepared for disputes to
largely center on the interpretation of facts, rather than the strict
circumstances or events described.
281
Another crafty trick used by the test makers is to offer an answer
where the view of only one of the authors is known. In these instances one passage did not address the issue in the answer choice, or at least failed to do so clearly enough that the author’s opinion on it can be known. Since the correct answer must contain a point of disagreement, these “one unknown” answers are
always incorrect since there is no way to determine the feelings of both speakers.
282
Agree/Disagree Test
The correct answer must produce responses where one speaker would say, “I agree, this statement is correct” and the other speaker would say, “I agree, this statement is incorrect.” If those two responses are not produced, then the answer is incorrect.
283
The Agree/Disagree Test crystallizes the
essence of Point at Issue questions by forcing you to concretely identify both speakers’ position on an answer choice.
284
Point of Agreement questions are thus the
opposite of Point at Issue questions, where instead of being
asked to identify a disagreement, you are asked to identify the point of agreement between two authors.
285
Point of Agreement questions require you to
identify the issue or statement with which the two authors would both agree.
286
Note that, as with Point at Issue, this is an active task:
You are looking for
the answer choice about which both speakers have the same view (they might agree that the statements are correct, or they might both agree that the statements are incorrect).
286
Point of Agreement questions are also closely related to
Point at Issue questions, in that both require a comparison of the views of two speakers.
287
Point of Agreement questions appear roughly as often as
Point at Issue questions in Comparative Reading passage sets.
288
“ The authors of the passages would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements?”
Point of Agreement
289
“Borges and the author of Passage B would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements?”
Point of Agreement
290
“It can be inferred that each author would agree that if judges conduct independent research, that research”
Point of Agreement
291
The Blending of the Old and New...Why is this theme used frequently in Diversity passages?
Because the ability to adapt and synthesize information and ideas is an extremely advanced and beneficial skill, and to attribute such a skill to any group is seen as a compliment (which is why in almost all instances the ability to blend elements is praised).
291
Finally, note that, as with Point at Issue answer choices, if the view of one speaker is unknown, then
that answer is automatically incorrect.
291
Note the similarities in Point of Agreement and Point at Issue question stems:
the only differentiating factor is that with Point of Agreement you’re
seeking to find common ground instead of a dispute.
291
The Agree/Agree Test
The correct answer choice must be one about which both speakers
would say, “Yes, I agree with that statement.” If each speaker does not produce that response, the answer is incorrect.
291
Member of an underrepresented group addresses a member of an
overrepresented group.
These scenarios occur relatively rarely, and thus they are not the focus of this section. When they do occur, it is normally because the member of the overrepresented group was initially critical of the member of the underrepresented group, and then the member of the underrepresented group typically responds somewhat dismissively to the member of the overrepresented group (which is quite reasonable—who wouldn’t be dismissive toward someone who criticized them?).
292
Knowing how the test makers will approach a traditionally
underrepresented group then allows you to
predict the general direction of certain answer choices.
292
In the dozens of passages addressing traditionally underrepresented groups that have appeared on the LSAT in the past 25-plus years, every single passage has
addressed these groups in a positive manner. That is, in each
instance, the attitude of the author toward the person or group under discussion has been positive or encouraging.
293
An analysis of every released LSAT from the modern era (1991 to the present) shows that usually
when the test makers critique an individual or viewpoint, that person or perspective belongs to a historically well-represented group, that of Caucasian male authors.
293
The test makers consistently take a positive attitude towards
traditionally underrepresented
groups.
294
On the LSAT, this criticism most
frequently appears in passages devoted to assessing the work of scholars, who, under the description of the overrepresented group we used earlier, are typically
Caucasian males versed in Western thinking.
295
Member of an overrepresented group addresses a member of an
underrepresented group.
Although here are passages where members of an overrepresented
group criticize members of an underrepresented group, (as outlined in point 1 above), the response in those passages is predictable: that
initial, critical group or individual is then attacked. More interesting—
and the focus of this section—are passages where members of an
overrepresented group praise or commend members of an
underrepresented group.
296
The Blending of the Old and New
These passages feature individuals or groups that adopt old approaches or ideas some “tradition” or past cultural convention, typically and marry them in some fashion to newer, more modern practices, thereby creating something unique and powerful. This “blended” approach bridges the gap between old and new by keeping some elements of the original custom while also adopting elements of the newer approach. The result is a synthesis of the two, producing a new form to be admired. In all cases, the person or
group who does the blending is praised as innovative and inspired.
297
If you encounter any unknown legal terminology while reading a Law-Related passage,
do not be concerned. Any legal terms will be explained in the text.
298
A number of LSAT passages discuss persons or groups that in some way cannot be classified or judged by conventional means:
they confound their critics, or are underappreciated in their time. The message of these passages is that the person or subject under discussion is too unique or pioneering to be appropriately assessed, or is so progressive (ahead of their time, typically) that their contemporaries could not understand the full merit of their work.
299
There are two topics that appear within Law-Related passages that bear further examination
1. Regulation
2. Diversity
300
Regulation
On the LSAT, passages occasionally
appear that address the legal regulation of marketplaces and borders
and in almost every instance the viewpoint presented by the authors is the same: regulation is either needed or should be expanded if already in place. Given that LSAC is an organization that ultimately assists in producing lawyers, and it is the law which regulates our society, the consistency of this pro-regulation viewpoint should come as no surprise.
301
Diversity
When passages concerning Law-Related issues include Diversity elements, that consistency is of course maintained: in almost all cases, the test makers advocate legal remedies and relief for underrepresented groups.
302
Nothing you will encounter in a Science passage (or any other passage) will remain
unexplained, and that you already have the methods in hand to attack Science passages effectively.
303
Handling Scientific Elements
When you encounter scientific terms or phrases, underline or highlight the phrase, or make note of the definition by marking the section with a “DEF” notation on your scratch paper.
303
When you read a science-based passage, focus on
understanding the relationship of the ideas and do not be intimidated by the terminology used by the author.
303
Passages are NOT presented in
order of difficulty.
303
If you encounter an extended section of complex scientific terminology, at most highlight the section and do not worry too much about understanding every single idea within the it. You can
return to the highlighted area if you are asked to do so by a question, and focus on understanding the ideas at that point.
