lymphatic and endocrine system Flashcards
(180 cards)
1
Q
this system is composed of a network of vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue of the body and a collection of tissue/organs that produce immune cells
A
the lymphatic system
2
Q
name 3 functions of the lymphatic system
A
- fluid recovery
- immunity
- lipid absorption
3
Q
over the coarse of one day how much fluid is not reabsorbed by the blood capillaries?
A
2 to 4 liters
4
Q
what system is responsible for returning the 2 to 4 liters of plasma protein to the blood from the tissues?
A
the lymphatic system
5
Q
if the lymph nodes are affected on one side of the body ( unilaterally) than the infection is either local or systemic
A
local
6
Q
if the lymph nodes are affected on both sides of the body (bilateral) than the infections is either local or systemic
A
systemic
7
Q
How does the lymphatic nodes or organs detect a foreign antigen?
A
when the fluid passes through the nodes/organs they pick up foreign cells and chemicals and it activates a protective immune response.
8
Q
what are the lymph vessels called in the small intestines?
A
lacteals
9
Q
what does a lacteal do?
A
it absorbs dietary lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries.
10
Q
what are the main components of the lymphatic system?
A
- lymph
- lymphatic vessels
- lymphatic tissues
- lymphatic organs
11
Q
what is the responsibility of the lymphatic vessels?
A
to transport lymph
12
Q
what is the lymphatic tissue composed of ?
A
it is composed of aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages
13
Q
what is the clear colorless fluid called that is low in protein and taken up by the lymphatic vessels?
A
lymph fluid
14
Q
where does the lymphatic fluid originate from
A
tissue fluid
15
Q
what does the lymph fluid contain when it is leaving a lymph node
A
lymphocytes
16
Q
what does the lymph fluid look like when it is draining after a fatty meal is consumed?
A
it has a milky appearance related to its high lipid content
17
Q
what things can be found inside the lymph fluid besides lymphocytes and lipids?
A
macrophages, hormones, cellular debris, bacteria, viruses and cancer cells.
18
Q
follow the route of tissue fluid back to the blood
A
lymphatic capillaries collecting vessels six lymphatic trunks two collecting ducts subclavian veins
19
Q
lymphatic capillaries are present in nearly all tissues of the body except where?
A
CNS, cartilage, cornea, bone and bone marrow
20
Q
lymphatic capillaries are closely associated with lymphatic capillaries except for one thing which is ?
A
they are closed at one end
21
Q
true or false lymphatic capillaries have overlapping edges that act like valve-like flaps that can open or close?
A
true
22
Q
in which direction does the flap like structures of the lymphatic capillaries move when the tissue fluid in higher than the lymph tissue
A
the flaps move inward and fluid flows into the capillary
23
Q
in what direction does the flap like structures move when the lymphatic pressure is higher that the tissue fluid
A
the flaps move outward and closed to keep the fluid in the lymphatic capillary
24
Q
what does a lymphatic capillary consist of?
A
endothelial cells that loosely overlap
25
the collecting vessels travel along what types of vessels?
veins and arteries
26
at what intervals does the collecting vessels empty into the lymph nodes?
irregular intervals
27
when the lymph vessels empty into lymph nodes what happens to the bacteria
it is phagocytized and immune cells monitor the fluid for foreign antigens
28
after the collecting vessels where does the lymph fluid travel?
it converges to form larger lymphatic trunks
29
name the six lymphatic trunks
```
jugular
subclavian
bronchomediastinal
intercostals
intestinal
lumbar trunks
```
30
how many lymphatic ducts do we have and name them
two the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct
31
what areas are included in the right lymphatic duct
the right jugular, subclavian and bronchomediastinal trunks in the right thoracic cavity
32
where does it receive lymphatic drainage
from the right arm, right side of the thorax and the head
33
where does the lymphatic drainage from the right lymphatic ducts empty
into the right subclavian vein
34
where is the thoracic duct found
it is found on the left side.
35
where does it receive lymphatic drainage
from the body below the diaphragm and the left upper limb, left side of the head, neck and thorax
36
what is the name of the prominent sac that is formed by the joining of the lumbar trunks and the intestinal trunks
the cisterna chyli
37
the cisterna chili gets it name from >>>f
the large amount of fat that it collects after a meal
38
where does the thoracic duct empty into
the left subclavian vein
39
true or false
| the lymph flows under a force similar to that of veins but it flows at a higher pressure and speed than venous blood
false
| lymph vessels have no pump like the heart and it flows at a lower pressure/speed than venous blood
40
what is the function of the valves of the lymphatic vessels
they prevent the fluid from flowing backwards
41
true or false
| do the skeletal muscles play a part in lymphatic flow
yes
42
besides skeletal muscles what else contributes to the flow of lymph
arteries are often wrapped with a lymph vessel and may pulsate and rhythmically squeeze the lymphatic vessels
43
how does the thoracic muscles assist in lymph flow
as one inhales it promotes flow
44
name the six types of lymphatic cells
1. B lymphocytes
2. T Lymphocytes
3. Macrophages
4. Natural killer (NK) cells
5. dendritic cells
6. Reticular cells
45
which lymphocyte is named after the bursa of Fabricius? which is an organ in a chicken
B lymphocytes
46
which lymphatic cells produce the antibodies of the immune system
the B lymphocytes
47
which lymphocyte mature in the thymus gland
T lymphocytes
48
which type of lymphatic cell is a large phagocytic cell that develops from monocytes that have emigrated from the blood
macrophages
49
which type of macrophages alerts the immune system to the presence of foreign antigens?
the ( APCs) antigen presenting cells
50
which type of lymphocyte attacks/destroys bacteria, infected host cells from viruses or cancer and transplanted tissues?
the natural killer cells
51
which lymphatic cells are responsible for a means of defense called the Immune surveillance?
the natural killer cells
52
what are the branched, mobile antigen presenting cells (APC) found in the epidermis, mucous membranes and lymphatic organs
the dendrite cells
53
what are the branched APC found in the skin
Langerhan's cells
54
how does the dendritic cells play a role in alerting the immune system
they take up foreign antigen by receptor mediated endocytosis
55
what are the branched stationary cells that contribute to the stroma of the lymphatic organs and act as APC's in the thymus
the reticular cells
56
what are the aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of the mucus membranes and various organs
the lymphatic tissue
57
what is the simplest form of lymphatic tissue called?
the diffuse lymphatic tissue
58
where is the diffuse lymphatic tissue found?
in body passages that are open to the exterior of the body like the respiratory tract, the digestive tract and the reproductive tract
59
what is the diffuse lymphatic tissue called that is present in the respiratory, digestive and respiratory tract and what does it stand for?
MALT- mucosa associated Lymphatic tissue
60
what is the name of the diffuse lymphatic tissue that is present in the digestive tract and what does it stand for?
GALT- gut associated lymphatic tissue
61
what is the name of the diffuse lympatic tissue that is found in the respiratory tract and what does it stand for?
BALT- bronchus associated lymphatic tissue
62
name the two primary lymphatic organs
the red bone marrow and the thymus
63
name the three secondary lymphatic organs
the lymph nodes, tonsils and spleen
64
why is the red bone marrow and thymus called the primary organs?
because they are the sites where B and T lymphocytes become immunocompetent.
65
what is the job of the secondary lymphatic organs?
they are populated with the immunocompetent lymphocytes after they have matured in the primary lymphatic organs.
66
what does immunocompetent mean?
this means that the lymphocyte is able to recognize and respond to antigens.
67
what portion of a childs skeleton is occupied by the red bone marrow?
nearly the entire skeleton
68
what portion of the adult skeleton is occupied by the red bone marrow?
it is limited to the axial skeleton(sternum, iliac crest) and the proximal heads of the humerus and femur
69
what is the soft, loosely organized, highly vascular material separate from the osseous tissue by the endosteum of the bone?
the red bone marrow
70
how does the red bone marrow gets it's color?
from the abundance of RBC's
71
what drains into the central longitudinal vein that exits the bone and are lined by endothelial cells
the sinusoids
72
what type of cells stimulate factors that induce the formation of leukocytes?
the reticular cells
73
what happens to the aging reticular cells in the long bones?
they accumulate fat and transform into adipose cells, replacing the red bone marrow with yellow bone marrow
74
what is the function of the red bone marrow?
to produce blood (hemopoiesis) and to aid
| immunity
75
what area of the lymphatic and endocrine system houses developing lymphocytes and produces hormones that regulate their activity
the thymus
76
where is the thymus located?
between the sternum and the aortic arch in the superior mediastinum
77
what does the fibrous capsule of the thymus do
it gives of trabeculae that divides the gland into several angular lobules.
78
what is contained within each lobule of the thymus?
a dark staining cortex and a lighter medulla that is populated by T lymphocytes
79
what is the function of the reticular epithelial cells of the thymus?
they form a blood thymus barrier (BTB) by sealing off the cortex from the medulla and surrounds the blood vessels and lymphocyte clusters in the cortex.
and they produce signaling molecules that promote the development and function of T cells.
80
what does the BTB blood thymus barrier do?
it isolates developing lymphocytes from blood borne antigens
81
what are the signaling molecules the promote the development and function of T cells
thymosin, thymopoietin, thymulin, interleukins and interferon
82
what are the most numerous lymphatic organs in the body
the lymph nodes
83
what is contained in the subcapsular sinus of the lymph nodes
macrophages, dendritic cells and reticular fibers
84
what is the cortex
it is the outer covering that encircles about 4/5 of the organs.
85
what is the medulla
it is the inner area that consists of branching network of medullary cords. it extends to the surface at the hilum
86
what is the hilum
an indentation
87
afferent vessels enter or exit the lymph nodes?
they enter the lymph nodes through these vessels and into the subcapsular sinus
88
after leaving the subcapsular sinus of the cortex and the medulla the fluid flows through which type of vessel?
the efferent lymphatic vessel which emerges from the hilum
89
true or false ... lymph nodes are the only organs that filter lymph as it flows?
true, the other lymphatic organs do not have afferent and efferent vessels.
90
what is the purpose of the lymph nodes
to allow time for cleansing of the lymph flid of foreign antigens. it removes about 99% of the impurities before the lymph leaves the lymph node.
91
most lymphocytes deep in the cortex of the lymph nodes are what type of lymph cell
T cells
92
what area are the lymph nodes concentrated in
the cervical, axillary, thoracic, abdominal, intestinal/mesenteric, inguinal and popliteal.
93
what is the condition called when a lymph node becomes swollen and painful
lymphadenitis
94
what is the collective term for all lymph node diseases
lymphadenopathy
95
what are the functions of the lymph nodes
cleansing the lymph fluid and to provide a site for B and T cell activation
96
where are the tonsils located
the entrance of the pharynx in 3 sets. the pharyngeal tonsils, the palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils.
97
what is the name of the one tonsil located on the wall of the pharynx just behind the nasal cavity
the pharyngeal tonsil
98
what is the name of the pair of tonsils located at the posterior margin of the oral cavity and the largest and most often to be infected
the palatine tonsils
99
what is the name of the tonsil located on each side of the root of the tongue
the lingual tonsils
100
what is the name of the largest lymphatic organ located in the posterior abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm and posterio-lateral to the stomach
the spleen
101
the spleen parenchyma has two types of tissue what are they called?
the red pulp and the white pulp
102
what does the red pulp consist of ?
sinusoids filled with lymphocytes ( T AND B CELLS)
103
what does the white pulp consist of
it consists of lymphocytes and macrophages along small branches of the splenic artery
104
what is the functions of the spleen?
it produces blood cells in the fetus, the white pulp monitors the blood for foreign antigens, the sinuses of the red pulp accumulate old RBC;s where they rupture and are phagocytized by the macrophages and it stabilizes blood volume by transferring excess plasma from the blood into the lymphatic system
105
the bodys defense against infectious disease agents is known as the
the immune system
106
the immune system has two defenses known as
the innate defenses and the adaptive defenses
107
which type of body defense system responds to infection and trauma regardless of the type of infectious disease or trauma?
the innate defense, it includes a first and second line of defense which could be due to a bacteria, virus, burn, cut ect
108
what is the body defense system that involves the responses of the immune system as a third line of defense, namely the lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells
the adaptive defenses
109
what job does the B lymphocytes have in the adaptive defense system
to produce antibody that is specialized to fight infections outside the cell
110
what job does the T lymphocytes have in the adaptive defense system
they are designed to fight intracellular infections, viruses and cancer cells
111
what is the job of the antigen presenting cells of the adaptive defense system
to meet and great the antigen and to worn the other cells that they are present
112
name the 5 anatomical barriers and their secretions as the bodies first line of defense
```
skin
mucous membranes and mucous
lacrimal apparatus and tears
urinary tract and urine
vagina and vaginal secretions
```
113
name the 3 areas of the first line of defense
anatomical barriers and their secretions
chemical (anti-microbial) factors
normal microbiota
114
name the 6 chemical factors
```
saliva
sebum
perspiration
lysozyme
gastric acid
transferrins
```
115
how does saliva help with our immune systems first line of defense
it dilutes the number of microbes and washes them from the surface of the teeth and the mucous membranes of the mouth
116
how does sebum help with our immune system first line of defense
it acts as a protective film over our skin, it has a low Ph and thereby prevents microbial growth and some microbes metabolize the sebum which leads to an inflammatory response and acne
117
how does perspiration help with our immune systems first line of defense
it is produced by our sweat glands and it flushes our microbes
118
how does lysozyme help with our immune systems first line of defense
it is found in body fluids like tears and saliva, it has antimicrobial activity that can destroy peptidoglycan and is active against gram positive bacteria
119
how does gastric acid help with our immune systems first line of defense
it has a low Ph, it creates a hostile environment for most microbes.
120
how does transferrins help with our immune systems first line of defense
these iron binding proteins reduce the amount of iron available to microbes and as a result the microbes cant grow
121
what is the process of normal microbiota preventing the growth of pathogens called
microbial antagonism
122
how do normal microbiota protect as part of the immune systems first line of defense
it competes with pathogens for nutrients and produces harmful substances and creates an environment that is not suitable for the pathogen.
123
what is the 4 areas of the second line of defense
phagocytosis
inflammation
fever
antimicrobial substances
124
name the two types of leukocytes that fight infection and eliminate microbes through phagocytosis
granulocytes ie( neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) and agranulocytes ( monocytes, lymphocytes
125
which granulocyte is the most abundant, has 3 to 5 lobes, appear in the acute phase of infection, are highly phagocytic and are primarily for bacteria
neutrophils
126
which granulocyte has a large U or S shaped nucleus, secretes histamine, secretes heparin and promotes mobility of other leukocytes by preventing clotting
basophils
127
which granulocyte has 2 lobes connected by a thin strand and is phagocytic against parasites
eosinophils
128
which agranulocyte has a large ovoid, kidney shaped or horseshoe shaped nucleus
monocyte
129
which agranulocyte circulates freely in the blood, not phagocytic and present antigens to activate other cells of the immune system
monocyte
130
when a monocyte leaves the blood and enters the tissue space it matures into what type of cell
a macrophage
131
what is the name for a macrophage that is found in specific tissues like the liver (kupfer cells) the lungs (alveolar macrophages) spleen, lymph nodes
fixed macrophages
132
what is the name of the macrophage that moved from the blood and is highly phagocytic
wandering macrophages
133
what is the name of the agranulocyte that is round to ovoid and is of a uniform dark violet color
lymphocytes
134
what are the two lymphocytes and their functions
B cells- produce antibodies of which their are 5 classes and T cells- their are 4 subsets of T cells
135
name the four main stages of phagocytosis
chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion and digestion
136
which stage of phagocytosis involves chemical attraction to the site of infection by either damaged tissue cells, products from microbial cells and components of the complement system C5a
chemotaxis
137
name the stage of phagocytosis that involves the attachment of the plasma membrane, and if they are opsonized
adherence
138
if a microorganism is coated with antibody or components of complement C3b this is known as
opsonized
139
this stage of phagocytosis involves using projections called pseudopods that surrounds the microbe, fuses and brings it into the cell within an enclosed vesicle called a phagosome
ingestion
140
what is the stage of phagocytosis that the phagosome fuses with the lysosome to form a phagolysome, releases its digestive enzyme which kills the microbe and forms a residual body which contains any indigestible material and discharges its contents from the cell through the cell membrane
digestion
141
as a secondary line of defense this response is activated when there is local damage to body tissue
inflammation
142
damage to the body that causes inflammation could result from several factors like..
microbial infection
physical agents like cuts, heat and electricity
chemical agents like acids and bases
143
what are the four signs of inflammation
redness, swelling, pain and heat
144
what is inflammations role in the secondary line of defense
to destroy and remove the agent that has caused the damage, attempt to wall off the agent if it cant be destroyed and to repair damaged tissue.
145
what are the 3 stages of inflammation
1. vasodilation and increased vascular permeability
2. phagocytes migration and phagocytosis
3. tissue repair
146
name some of the acute phase proteins that are released when cells have been damaged
```
histamine
kinins
prostaglandins
leukotrienes
cytokines
complement
```
147
what is vasodilation
the increase in the diameter of the blood vessel which increases blood flow, which results in redness at the site of inflammation
148
what is increased vascular permeability
this is when the walls of the vessels permits substances to pass through blood vessels walls and into the tissue spaces causing swelling (edema)
149
what causes pain during the stages of inflammation
the edema presses on adjacent nerve endings and bacterial toxins are released as well as the sensitizing effects of prostaglandins and kinins
150
how does delivery of clotting factor to the injured areas assist in the inflammation process
the clot prevents the microbe or its toxins from spreading
151
what potent inflammatory chemical is released from the mast cell
histamine
152
what is the process of margination or pavementing and when does it appear
about an hour after inflammation has started, blood slows and phagocytes appear. they stick to the walls of the inner lining of the blood vessel.
153
after margination the phagocytes move out into the tissue space known as
diapedesis or emigration
154
what forms after the phagocytes have completed their function and die
pus
155
during the third stage of inflammation this involves the replacement of dead or damaged cells in the injured tissue
tissue repair
156
what is a systemic response that increase the bodies temperature as part of the secondary line of defense
fever
157
what chemical is released from the hypothalamus in the brain that raises the body's temperature
prostaglandins
158
what chemical does leukocytes release in response to a microbial infection
pyrogens - namely interleukin-1
159
what is the name of the system that consists of a group of over 30 serum proteins that participate in our defenses
the complement system
160
there are two pathways that the complement system follows name them
the classical pathway and the alternative pathway
161
how is the classical pathway activated
it is activated by antibody (Ab) and antigen (Ag)
162
how is the alternative pathway activated
it is activated by the interaction of microbial polysaccharides with proteins of the alternative pathway, namely factors B,D and P
163
what is the consequences of activation
this results in cleavage of protein C3 into C3a and C3b. these fragments have new physiological activity and initiate 3 processes that are destructive to microbes
164
name the 3 processes that are destructive to microbes as a consequence of activation
1. cytolysis
2. inflammation
3. opsonization
165
what is the main function of the complement system
cytolysis- cell killing
166
what is the MAC- membrane attack complex and what does it do
the MAC is when C3b initiates the assembly of proteins C5-C9 which forms a transmembrane channel in the membrane of the microbe resulting in loss of ions and lysis
167
what does C3 split into
C3a and C3b
168
how does proteins C3a and C5a help with the inflammation process
they bind to the mast cells, basophils and platelets causing them to release histamine, resulting in increased vascular permeability- thereby contributing to inflammation
169
what is C5a responsibility during the inflammation process
it is a chemotactic factor that brings in the WBC's that comes in and helps defend.
170
what is the "tagging" process called and how does it work in killing microbes
opsonization is the tagging process. the complement component C3b attaches itself to the surface of the microbe ( similar to that of antibodies) and serves as an opsonin. it enhances the attachment and ingestion by the phagocytes.
171
what is the name of the antiviral proteins produced by animal cells in response to a viral infection
interferons
172
interferons are host specific. what does that mean
this means that if the interferon is produced by humans it will only protect humans and vice versa.
173
interferons are not virus specific, what does that mean
they are active against a number of different viruses.
174
what is the 3 types of human interferons
alpha, beta and gamma interferons
175
what are the 3 important aspects of the adaptive immune response (IR)
it is specific- recognizes and is directed against specific substances
it is systemic- the IR is not restricted to the initial local site of infection
it has a memory- after the initial exposure the adaptive IR recognizes and attacks even stronger if encountered again.
176
what is an antigen
it is a substance that can mobilize the adaptive defenses and illicit an IR
177
these are large complex molecules (natural or synthetic) that are not normally present in the body and is considered nonself by our immune system
antigens
178
what is an antigenic determinant
this is part of the antigen that is capable of eliciting an IR or is immunogenic
179
what are the three major types of cells acting as APC's
the dendritic cells, macrophages ad B cells
180
there are 3 delivery mechanisms that ensure that immune cells encounter invading antigens what are they
passive delivery, T cell recirculation and migration of dendritic cells to the secondary lymph organs
