M1 - FINAL STUDY GUIDE Flashcards
Understand the shapes used to classify epithelial cells.
If classified according to shape, epithelial cells are identified as:
1. Squamous—flat and scalelike /ˈskwā-məs /
2. Cuboidal—cube shaped /kyü-ˈbȯi-dᵊl /
3. Columnar—taller than they are wide /kə-ˈləm-nər/
4. Transitional—varying shapes that can stretch
/ tran(t)-ˈzish-nəl /
Understand the form elements of the blood.
Formed Elements
There are three main types and several subtypes of formed elements:
1. Red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytes 2. White blood cells (WBCs), or leukocytes a.** Granular** leukocytes (obvious granules in their cytoplasm are evident when stained) (1) Neutrophils (2) Eosinophils (3) Basophils
b. Agranular leukocytes (lack obvious granules in their cytoplasm when stained) (1) Lymphocytes (2) Monocytes
3. Platelets or thrombocytes
Know the main parts of the cell.
A** plasma membrane** serves as the boundary of the cell; protein and carbohydrate molecules on the outer surface of the plasma membrane perform various functions such as serving as markers that identify cells of each individual. Cytoplasm-The living internal material of cells. It contains organelles necessary for the cells to survive. Nucleus-contains most of the cell’s genetic information, which ultimately controls every organelle in the cytoplasm. It contains DNA, which dictates protein synthesis. It controls cell reproduction.
Describe the processes of passive transport passive.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Particles scatter themselves evenly throughout an available space. ** Filtration** is the movement of both water and small solute particles through a membrane because of a greater pushing force on one side of the membrane than on the other side. Movement is from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure. **Osmosis **is the movement of a fluid through a semipermeable membrane. When some of the solute cannot cross the membrane because there are no open channels or carriers for that solute.
Know the anatomic nervous system’s two main division functions of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic division.
/ˌsim-pə-ˈthe-tik /
The ** sympathetic division**
accelerates heartbeat,
constricted blood vessels, dilates blood vessel, decrease per stylus,
inhibits defecation,
closes sphincter, i
nhibits relaxes bladder,
stimulate radial fibers-Dilation of pupils,
inhibits-accommodation for far vision,
stimulates-goose pimples,
increase epinephrine secretion,
increase sweat secretion,
decrease secretion of digestive juices.
The** parasympathetic division**
Slows heartbeat,
increase peristalsis, /ˌper-ə-ˈstȯl-səs/
inhibits-open sphincter for defecation,
stimulates- contracts bladder,
inhibits-Open sphincter for urination,
stimulates circular fibers-constriction of pupil,
stimulate-accommodation for near vision,
increase secretion of digestive juices.
Know the chambers of the heart.
The two upper chambers are called atria (singular, atrium), and the two lower chambers are called ventricles. The atria are smaller than the ventricles, and their walls are thinner and less muscular. As you can see in Figure 14-1, both atria form an earlike outpouching called an auricle.
Know the structures of the upper and the lower respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract is composed of the nose, pharynx, and larynx. The lower respiratory tract consists of the trachea, all segments of the bronchial tree, and the lungs.
Know the sensory receptor cells and how they are classified functionally.
Sensory receptor cells are also classified functionally by the
types, or modes, of stimuli that activate them:
1. Photoreceptors—sensitive to change in intensity or color of light, as in vision
2. Chemoreceptors—sensitive to presence of certain chemicals, as in taste or smell
3. Pain receptors—sensitive to physical injury
4. Thermoreceptors—sensitive to changes in temperature
5. Mechanoreceptors—sensitive to mechanical stimuli that change their position or shape
Review table 11-2 on page 299. Understand the sense organs and their senses of the eye, the ear. and the nose. Know the specific receptors of the sense organs.
TABLE 11-2 Special Sense Organs
SENSE ORGAN SPECIFIC RECEPTOR TYPE OF RECEPTOR SENSE
Eye Rods and cones Photoreceptor Vision
Ear Spiral organ Mechanoreceptor Hearing
(organ of Corti)
Crista ampullaris Dynamic equilibrium Maculae Static equilibrium
Nose Olfactory cells Chemoreceptor Smell
Taste buds Gustatory cells Taste
Understand the process of hemostasis.
The story of how we stop bleeding when an injury occurs—a
process called hemostasis—is the story of a chain of rapid-fire reactions. All these reactions culminate in the formation of a blood clot.
When an injury occurs –> **vasoconstriction **
–> form prothrombin activator + clacium -> converting prothrombin (a protein in healthy blood) to thrombin + fibrinogen (a typical plasma protein) = a fibrous gel called fibrin
–>platelet plug
Know the anatomical positions.
Anatomical position. The body is in an erect or standing posture with the arms at the sides and the palms forward. The head and feet also point for-ward. The dashed median line shows the axis of the body’s external bilateral symme-try, in which the right and left sides of the body are mirror images
of each other. The anatomical
compass rosette is ex-plained in a later section of this chapter.
Know the meaning of inferior, superior, anterior, posterior, and lateral.
-
Superior and inferior (Figure 1-4). Superior means “to-ward the head,” and inferior means “toward the feet.” Su-perior also means “upper” or “above,” and inferior means
“lower” or “below.” For example, the lungs are located superior to the diaphragm, whereas the stomach is lo-cated inferior to the diaphragm (refer to Figure 1-8 if you are not sure where these organs are located). The simple terms upper and lower are sometimes used in profes-sional language as well. For example, the term “upper respiratory tract” and “lower gastrointestinal tract” are used commonly by anatomists and health professionals. - Anterior and posterior (see Figure 1-4). Anterior means “front” or “in front of.” Posterior means “back” or “in back of.” For example, the nose is on the ante-rior surface of the body, and the shoulder blades are on its posterior surface.
- Ventral and dorsal. In humans, who walk in an upright position, ventral (toward the belly) can be used in place of anterior, and dorsal (toward the back) can be used for posterior. These terms are sometimes helpful when the body is not in the ana-tomical position.
- **Medial and lateral ** (see Figure 1-4). Medial means “toward the midline of the body.” Lateral means “to-ward the side of the body or away from its midline.” For example, the great toe is at the medial side of the foot, and the little toe is at its lateral side. The heart lies medial to the lungs, and the lungs lie lateral to the heart.
- **Proximal and distal ** (see Figure 1-4). Proximal means “toward or nearest the trunk of the body, or nearest the point of origin of one of its parts.” Distal means “away from or farthest from the trunk or the point of ori-gin of a body part.” For example, the elbow lies at the proximal end of the forearm, whereas the hand lies at its distal end. Likewise, the distal portion of a kidney tubule is more distant from the tubule origin than is the proximal part of the kidney tubule.
- Superficial and deep. Superficial means nearer the surface. Deep means farther away from the body sur-face. For example, the skin of the arm is superficial to the muscles below it, and the bone of the arm is deep to the muscles that surround and cover it.
Planes of the Body
- Sagittal plane —a sagittal cut or section that runs along a lengthwise plane running from anterior to posterior. It divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. The midsagittal plane shown in Figure 1-4 is a unique type of sagittal plane that divides the body into two equal halves.
- Frontal plane —a frontal plane (coronal plane) is a lengthwise plane running from side to side. As you can see in Figure 1-4, a frontal plane divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior (front and back) portions.
- Transverse plane —a transverse plane is a crosswise or horizontal plane. Such a plane (see Figure 1-4) divides the body or any of its parts into superior and inferior portions.
- oblique planes
Know the organelles and their functions.
Plasma membrane
** Phospholipid** bilayer studded with proteins /ˌfäs-fō-ˈli-pəd/ /ˈstəd
Serves as the water-resistant boundary of the cell Protein and carbohydrate molecules on outer surface of plasma membrane perform various functions—for example, they serve as **[markers] **that identify cells as being from a particular individual, [receptor molecules] for certain hormones, or **[transporters] **to move substances through the membrane
** Cytoskeleton**
Complex internal network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments /ˌmī-krō-ˈtü-(ˌ)byül / /ˌmī-krō-ˈfi-lə-mənt /
Provides support and movement for the cell
Ribosomes /ˈrī-bə-ˌsōm/
Tiny particles, each made up of rRNA subunits
Synthesize proteins—a cell’s “protein factories” /ˈsin(t)-thə-ˌsīz /
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) /ri-ˈti-kyə-ləm/
Membranous network of interconnected canals and sacs, some with ribosomes attached (rough ER) and some without attachments (smooth ER)
Rough ER receives and transports synthesized proteins (from ribosomes)
Smooth ER [synthesizes] lipids and certain carbohydrates
Golgi apparatus /ˈgȯl-(ˌ)jē/ /ˌa-pə-ˈra-təs/
Stack of flattened, membranous sacs
Chemically processes, then packages substances from the ER
Mitochondria /ˌmī-tə-ˈkän-drē-ən/
Membranous capsule containing a large, folded internal membrane embedded with enzymes; contains its own DNA molecule
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis—a cell’s “power plant” or “battery charger” /ə-ˈde-nə-ˌsēn / /(ˌ)trī-ˈfäs-ˌfāt/ /ˈsin(t)-thə-səs
**Lysosome ** /ˈlī-sə-ˌsōm/
“Bubble” of hydrolysis enzymes encased by membrane /hī-ˈdrä-lə-səs/
A cell’s “digestive bag,” it breaks apart large molecules
**Centrosome **
Region of cytoplasm near nucleus containing the centrioles
Acts as a microtubule-organizing center, helping to move cell components
Centrioles /ˈsen-trē-ˌōl /
Pair of hollow cylinders at right angles to each other, each made up of tiny tubules within the centrosome
Help organize and move chromosomes during cell reproduction
Microvilli /ˌmī-krō-ˈvi-ˌlī/
Small, fingerlike projections of plasma membrane
Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia /ˈsi-lē-ə /
Hairlike cell surface extensions supported by an internal cylinder made of microtubules (longer than microvilli)
Sensory “antennae” to detect conditions outside the cell; some cilia also move substances over surface of the cell
Flagella /flə-ˈje-lə /
Long whiplike projection on the sperm; similar to a cilium but much longer
The only example in humans is the “tail” of a sperm cell, propelling the sperm through fluids
Nucleus /ˈnü-klē-əs /
Double-membraned, spherical envelope containing DNA strands
Contains DNA, which dictates protein synthesis, thereby playing an essential role in other cell activities such as transport, metabolism, growth, and heredity
**Nucleolus **
Dense region of the nucleus
Makes subunits that form ribosomes
Know and describe the connective tissues.
Types of Connective Tissue The following list identifies several major types of connective tissue in the body. Notice that the list is organized by category. Photomicrographs of representative types are provided in the following pages.
A. Fibrous (connective tissue proper)
1. Loose fibrous (areolar)
2. Adipose (fat)
a. White
b. Brown
3. Reticular
4. Dense fibrous
a. Regular
b. Irregular
**B. Bone **
1. Compact
2. Cancellous
**C. Cartilage **
1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic
**D. Blood **
E. Hematopoietic tissue
Review the different types of anemia.
Polycythemia is a serious blood condition characterized by dramatic increases in RBC numbers. /ˌpä-lē-(ˌ)sī-ˈthē-mē-ə/
**Hemorrhagic Anemia **
Hemorrhagic anemia is caused by an actual decrease in the number of circulating RBCs because of hemorrhage or bleed-ing. It is referred to as either acute blood-loss anemia resulting, for example, from extensive surgery or sudden trauma, or chronic blood-loss anemia caused by the slow but continuous loss of blood over time from diseases, such as cancer or ulcers.
Aplastic Anemia /(ˌ)ā-ˈpla-stik-/
Aplastic anemia is characterized by unusually low RBC counts and destruction of bone marrow. The cause is often related to high-dose exposure to certain toxic chemicals, such as benzene or mercury; irradiation; and in susceptible individuals, certain drugs including chloramphenicol.
**Deficiency Anemias **
Reduction of Healthy Hemoglobin
Deficiency anemias are caused by an inadequate supply of some substance, such as vitamin B12 or iron, required for RBC or hemoglobin production. In addition to adequate numbers of functioning RBCs, the amount and quality of hemoglobin are critical factors in maintaining the oxygen-carrying capac-ity of the blood. Typical hemoglobin levels range from 12 to 14 g per 100
milliliters (g/100 mL) of whole blood for typical adult females and 14 to 17 g/100 mL for typical adult males. A hemoglobin value less than 9 g/100 mL indicates anemia.
Pernicious Anemia /pər-ˈni-shəs/
Pernicious anemia results from a dietary deficiency of vitamin B12 or from the failure of the stomach lining to produce intrinsic factor—the substance that allows vitamin B12 to be absorbed. /in-ˈtrin-zik -ˈtrin(t)-sik /
**Folate Deficiency Anemia ** /ˈfō-ˌlāt /
Folate deficiency anemia is similar to pernicious anemia in that it develops from a vitamin deficiency, causes a decreased RBC count, and results in the formation of larger-than-typical RBCs. In this condition, *folic acid *(vitamin B9) is deficient.
**Iron Deficiency Anemia **
Iron deficiency anemia, as the name suggests, is caused by a deficiency of iron, a mineral required for hemoglobin synthe-sis. Although the body carefully protects its iron reserves, iron levels may be depleted through hemorrhage, low intake, or increased requirements, such as wound healing or pregnancy.
**Hemolytic Anemias ** /ˌhē-mə-ˈli-tik /
RBC Destruction
Hemolytic anemias as a group are all associated with a de-creased RBC lifespan caused by an increased rate of destruc-tion. Frequently, an atypical formation of hemoglobin will cause RBCs to become distorted and easily broken.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease that results in the formation of limited amounts of a variant type of hemoglobin called sickle hemoglobin, or hemoglobin S (HbS). The ge-netic condition produces an amino acid sub-stitution in one of the beta (b) polypeptide chains (see Figure 13-4), causing the resulting HbS to be less stable and less soluble than typical hemoglobin. HbS forms crystals and causes the red cell to become fragile and as-sume a sickle (crescent) shape when the blood oxygen level is low (Figure 13-9).
Thalassemia /ˌtha-lə-ˈsē-mē-ə/
Thalassemia refers to a group of inherited hemolytic anemias. The most common type, which occurs most often in individu-als of Mediterranean descent, is characterized by production of atypical hemoglobin and inadequate numbers of small (mi-crocytic) and often oddly shaped RBCs that are short-lived.
**Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn **
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) = erythroblastosis fetalis
Review the different types of heart sounds and the valve closure which they are associated with.
The first sound, or lub, is caused by vibrations that result
from the abrupt closure of the AV valves as the ventricles con-tract. Closure of the AV valves prevents blood from rushing back into the atria during ventricular contraction. This first sound is of longer duration and lower pitch than the second sound, or dup. The pause between the first and second sound is shorter than the pause between the second sound and the next lub dup of the next systole. The second heart sound is caused by the closing of both the semilunar valves when the ventricles undergo diastole (or relaxation) (see Figure 14-3). Atypical heart sounds called heart murmurs are often
caused by conditions of the valves. For example, incompetent valves may cause a swishing sound as a “lub” or “dup” ends. Stenosed valves, on the other hand, often cause swishing sounds just before a “lub” or “dup.”
Review the different types of blood vessels, for example aneurysm, ischemia, and phlebitis.
Arteriosclerosis
If blood flow slows down too much,** ischemia** results.
Ischemia—or decreased blood supply to a tissue—eventually causes cell death and tissue necrosis. If a large section of tissue becomes necrotic, it may begin to decay. Necrosis that progresses to decay is called gangrene.
An** aneurysm** is a section of an artery that has become unusually widened because of a weakening of the arterial wall. Aneurysms sometimes form a saclike extension of the arterial wall. /ˈan-yə-ˌri-zəm /
cerebrovascular accident (CVA).
Conditions of Veins
**Varicose Veins **
Varicose veins are dilated, swollen, bulging veins in which
blood tends to pool rather than continue on toward the heart. Varicosities, also called varices (singular, varix), most com-monly occur in superficial veins near the surface of the body.
Hemorrhoids, or piles, are varicose veins in the rectum
or anus. Excessive straining during defecation can create pressures that cause hemorrhoids. Additionally, the unusual pressures associated with carrying a child during pregnancy predispose expectant mothers (ovum-parents) to hemorrhoids and other varicosities.
Phlebitis
Numerous factors can cause phlebitis, or vein inflammation. Irritation by an intravenous catheter, for example, is a common cause of vein inflammation. Thrombophlebitis is acute phlebitis caused by clot (thrombus) formation. Veins are more likely sites of thrombus formation than arteries because venous blood moves more slowly and is under less pressure than arterial blood. Thrombophlebi-tis is characterized by pain and discoloration of the surround-ing tissue.
If a piece of a clot breaks free, the resulting embolus can
travel and then lodge in another vessel. Pulmonary embolism, for example, results when an embolus lodges in the circulation of the lung (see Figure 13-19 on p. 375). Pulmonary embolism can lead to death quickly if too much blood flow is blocked.
Review the different types of shocks, for example cardiogenic shock, hypovolemic shock, Anaphylactic shock and septic shock.
Cardiogenic Shock
Cardiogenic shock results from any type of heart failure, including severe myocardial infarction (heart attack), heart infections, and other heart conditions. The term cardiogenic literally means “produced by the heart.” Because the heart can no longer pump blood effectively
during heart failure, blood flow to body tissues decreases or stops.
Hypovolemic Shock
Hypovolemic shock results from a decrease in blood volume in the blood vessels. The term hypovolemia means “condition of low blood volume.” Reduced blood volume causes low blood pressure and re-duces the flow of blood to tissues. Hemorrhage is a common cause of blood volume loss that then leads to hypovolemic shock.
Hypovolemia can also be caused by loss of interstitial
fluid. When interstitial fluid levels are low, the relative in-crease in interstitial solute concentration will pull blood plasma out of blood vessels and into the tissue spaces. Loss of interstitial fluid is common in chronic diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, intestinal blockage, severe or extensive burns, and various other conditions.
Neurogenic Shock
Neurogenic shock results from widespread dilation of blood vessels caused by an imbalance in autonomic stimulation of smooth muscles in vessel walls. The term neurogenic literally means “produced by nerves.” Recall from Chapter 10 that autonomic effectors such as smooth muscle tissues are controlled by a balance of stimula-tion between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. In healthy situations, sym-pathetic stimulation maintains the muscle tone that keeps blood vessels at their usual diameter. If sympathetic stimula-tion is disrupted by an injury to the spinal cord, damage to the medulla, depressive drugs, emotional stress, or some other fac-tor, blood vessels dilate significantly. Widespread vasodilation reduces blood pressure, thus reducing blood flow.
Anaphylactic Shock /ˌa-nə-fə-ˈlak-tik /
Anaphylactic shock results from an acute allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. Like neurogenic shock, anaphylaxis causes systemic blood vessel dilation which leads to a rapid drop in blood pressure. /ˌa-nə-fə-ˈlak-səs /
Septic Shock
Septic shock results from complications of septicemia, a con-dition in which infectious agents release toxins into the blood. The toxins involved in septicemia often dilate blood vessels, thereby causing shock. The situation is usually worsened by the damaging effects
of the toxins on tissues combined with the increased cell activ-ity caused by the accompanying fever. One type of septic shock is toxic shock syndrome (TSS),
which usually results from staphylococcal infections that begin in the vagina during menstruation and spread to the blood (see Appendix A: Examples ofPathological Conditions at evolve.elsevier.com).
know the function of B cells.
B cells function indirectly to produce humoral immunity. Recall that **humoral immunity **is resistance to disease organ-isms produced by the actions of antibodies binding to specific antigens while circulating in body fluids. Activated B cells develop into plasma B cells. Plasma B cells secrete antibodies into the blood—thus serving as the “antibody factories” of the body. These antibodies, like other proteins manufactured for extracellular use, are formed in the endoplasmic reticu-lum of the cell.
Understand the process of breathing.
Pulmonary ventilation has two phases. Inspiration, or inhala-tion, moves air into the lungs, and expiration, or exhalation, moves air out of the lungs.
Inspiration
Inspiration occurs when the chest cavity enlarges. As the tho-rax enlarges, the lungs expand along with it, and air rushes into the alveoli. This happens because of a very important law of physics which states that the volume and pressure of a gas are inversely proportional.
Muscles that increase the volume of the thorax are classi-fied as inspiratory muscles. These include the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.
Expiration **
Quiet, resting expiration is ordinarily a passive process that
begins when the inspiratory muscles relax and return to their resting length.
During more forceful expiration, the expiratory muscles (internal intercostals and several abdominal muscles) contract.
Differentiate between central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Interneurons
Interneurons conduct impulses within the CNS from sensory neurons to motor neurons. They also often connect with each other to form complex, central networks of nerve fibers. In-terneurons are sometimes called central or connecting neurons.
Central Glia Peripheral Glia
Schwann cells –>neurilemma
Tracts Nerves
bundles of axon axon endoneurium
in the CNS fascicles perineurium
white matter epineurium
(myelinated)
gray matter
(unmyelinated) A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies loated in the PNS
Know the structures of the heart: the layers of the serous pericardium or the outside of the heart and the inside of the heart pg. 390.
The wall of each heart chamber is composed of cardiac muscle tissue usually referred to as the** myocardium. The septum between the atrial chambers is called the interatrial septum. The interventricular septum separates the ventricles. Each chamber of the heart is lined by a thin layer of very smooth tissue called the endocardium (see Figure 14-2). In-flammation of this lining is referred to as endocarditis. If in-flamed, the endocardial lining can become rough and abrasive to RBCs passing over its surface. Blood flowing over a rough surface is subject to clotting, which can promote formation of a thrombus, or clot (see Chapter 13).
Pericardium
Coverings of the Heart
The heart has its own special covering called the pericardium. It is a multilayered sac that consists of two main parts: a fibrous portion and a serous portion. The outer fibrous portion—the** fibrous pericardium**—is made of tough white fibrous connective tissue that forms a loose, inextensible, protective outer covering for the heart. Within the fibrous peri-cardium is a double layer of smooth, moist serous membrane called the serous pericardium. The inner layer of the serous pericardium is the visceral pericardium, or epicardium. It covers and adheres to the heart’s surface like an apple skin covers an apple. The outer layer of the serous pericardium is the parietal pericardium. It attaches to the inner lining of the fibrous pericardium. Between the visceral and parietal layers is a space filled with fluid that allows the two layers to glide over one another as the heart moves when it beats.
Describe the different degrees of burns: first, second, third and 4th degree burns.
Partial-Thickness Burns
As the name suggests, a partial-thickness burn damages all or part of the epidermis, leaving the at least part of the der-mis intact. The least damaging partial-thickness burn is some-times called** a first-degree burn** (for example, a typical sunburn). These burns cause minor discomfort and some reddening of the skin. Although the surface layers of the epidermis may peel in 1 to 3 days, no blistering occurs, and actual tissue destruction is minimal.
A more serious partial-thickness burn is sometimes referred to as a second-degree burn (Figure 7-18, A) and involves the deep epidermal layers, and always causes injury to the upper layers of the dermis. Although deep second-degree burns damage sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands, complete destruction of the dermis does not occur. Blisters, severe pain, generalized swelling, and fluid loss characterize this type of burn. Scarring is common.
Full-Thickness Burns
A full-thickness burn is characterized by complete destruction
of the epidermis and dermis. In addition, tissue death extends below the primary skin layers into the subcutaneous tissue. A third-degree burn is a type of full-thickness burn. One distinction between second-and third-degree burns is that third-degree lesions are insensitive to pain im-mediately after injury because of the destruction of nerve endings.
The term fourth-degree burn is used to de-scribe a full-thickness burn that extends below the subcutaneous tissue to reach muscle or bone.