Major Themes Of Anatomy And Physiology And Anatomical Terminology Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
What is gross anatomy?
A
Refers to structures that can be seen with the naked eye. For example, internal and external organs.
2
Q
What is regional anatomy?
A
Is a method of gross anatomy where each specific region of the body is studied separately. For example, thigh or arm.
3
Q
What is systemic anatomy?
A
Is a method of gross anatomy to study each system in the body.
4
Q
What is surface anatomy?
A
Surface anatomy is a method of gross anatomy that studies the surface features of the body in relation to deeper parts.
5
Q
What is anatomy?
A
The study of body structure of living things. Which includes describing and identifying.
6
Q
What is physiology?
A
The study of the function of the body structure at a cellular and molecular level.
7
Q
What is renal physiology?
A
The study of kidney function.
8
Q
What is neurophysiology?
A
The study of the nervous system.
9
Q
What is cardiovascular physiology?
A
The study of the heart and blood vessels.
10
Q
What is pathopyhsiology?
A
The study of structural and functional changes in tissues and organs that lead to disease.
11
Q
List levels of human structure from simplest to the most complex.
A
- Atoms form molecules
- Molecules form cells
- Similar types of cells form tissues
- Similar types of tissues form organs
- Organs form the organ system
- The human organism is made up of organ systems.
12
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain a stably environment internally in the ever changing external environment.
13
Q
What are thermoreceptors?
A
Thermoreceptors are nerve cells that are specialised to detect differences in body temperature.
14
Q
What is a baroreceptor?
A
It senses change in blood pressure and sends signals to the brain that control blood pressure and vascular tone.
15
Q
What is nociceptor?
A
It is a sensory receptor that has specialised nerve endings to detect damage or threat of damage to tissues.
16
Q
What are 3 homeostatic control mechanisms?
A
- Receptor
- Control centre
- Effector
17
Q
What is a control centre in a homeostasis cycle?
A
Control centre receives information from receptors and then determines the response.
18
Q
What is a effector?
A
An effector responds to the directions provided by the control centre to the original stimuli.
19
Q
What is the homeostasis cycle?
A
- Stimulus produces change in variable
- Receptor detects change
- Information is sent along afferent pathway to receptor
- The control centre receives information
- Information is sent along efferent pathway to effector
- Effector responds which returns variable to homeostasis.
20
Q
How does negative feedback maintain homeostasis?
A
By reducing an excessive response to return control variables back to the normal range. For example, sweating when the body has excessive heat.
21
Q
What is positive feedback in homeostasis ?
A
Refers to physiological change that leads to even greater change in the same direction. For example, blood clots.
22
Q
What does the anatomical position refer to?
A
The description of an individual’s anatomy is a specific body orientation.
23
Q
What is the standard anatomical position?
A
The body is standing straight facing forward, with the arms at the side and palms facing forward as well.
24
Q
Why is the anatomical position used?
A
It provides a clear description on human anatomy and physiology.
25
Describe the 3 anatomical planes.
Sagittal plane passes vertically through the body and divides the body into left and right sides.
Frontal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.
Transverse plane is a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.
26
List the major body cavities, their membranes and organs in each.
Cranial cavity consists of the brain and meninges is the membrane.
Vertebral canal consists of the spinal cord and meninges is the membrane.
Pericardial cavity consists of the heart and the membrane is pericardium.
Pleural cavities consists of the lungs and the membrane is pleurae.
Abdominal cavity consists of the stomach, pancreas, kidneys, liver and intestines and the membrane is peritoneum.
Pelvic cavity consists of the reproductive system, rectum and bladder and the membrane is peritoneum.
Thoracic cavity consists of the lungs and heart.
27
List the four primary categories of organic compounds.
1. Lipids
1. Protein
3. Carbohydrates
4. Nucleotides
28
Why is carbon useful for forming biological molecules?
Carbon can bond easily with anything. Also, if a carbon combines with another carbon it can form even more with other things.
29
What does carbon form when combined with 3 hydrogen groups?
Fats, oils, steroids and amino acids.
30
What does saccharides mean?
Sugar
31
What does monosaccharides mean and explain its structure?
One sugar molecule and are structural isomers.
32
What are the major monosaccharides?
Glucose, galactose and fructose
33
What are disaccharides?
Two sugar molecules
34
What are the major disaccharides?
Sucrose, lactose and maltose
35
What are polysaccharides?
A carbohydrate
36
What are the major polysaccharides?
Fibre, starch and cellulose
37
List and describe the 5 functions of carbohydrates?
Cellular energy - glucose acts as blood sugar and is an energy source for most cells.
Energy storage - glycogen acts as energy storage and stores it in the liver and muscles.
Oxidation to make ATP - glucose can be broken down to form ATP molecules.
Cellulose - a source of dietary fibre.
Conjugated carbohydrates- can form with lipids and proteins to form glycolipids, glycoprotein and proteoglycan.
38
List 5 types of lipid.
1. Fatty acids
2. Phospholipids
3. Triglycerides
4. Eicosanoids
5. Steroids
39
What is the function of fatty acid?
A precursor of triglycerides and a source of energy.
40
What are phospholipids?
Help with digestion and are a major part of cell membranes.
41
What is the function of triglycerides?
Triglycerides provide thermal insulation, energy storage, filling space, binding and cushioning organs and shock absorption.
42
What is the function of eicosanoids?
Eicosanoids are chemical messengers between cells and a derived from arachidonic acid. They also play a signalling role in inflammation, blood clots, labour contractions, control of blood vessel diameter and hormone action.
43
What is the function of steroids?
Steroids are a major component of cell membranes.
44
What are steroids?
Steroids are naturally produced by our body
45
What is a major component of steroids?
Cholesterol
46
What is a protein?
A protein is a polymer of amino acids and the combination determines the structure and function. 20 amino acids form a protein.
47
What are peptides?
Peptides are a molecule containing 2 or more amino acids which are joined by peptide bonds.
48
What are oligopeptides?
Fewer than 10 to 15 amino acids.
49
How is a peptide bond formed?
By dehydration synthesis
50
List the 4 levels of structural organisation in proteins.
1. Primary structure
2. Secondary structure
3. Tertiary structure
4. Quaternary structure
51
What is primary structure in protein?
Sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
52
What is secondary structure in protein?
Coiled or folded shape with hydrogen bonds between negative C-O and positive N-H groups.
53
How is alpha helix or beta sheet formed?
By hydrogen bonding
54
What is tertiary structure in protein?
Further folding and bending into globular and fibrous shapes. Which is caused by interactions among R groups and between R groups and surrounding water.
55
What is a quaternary structure in protein?
Association of two or more separate polypeptide chains.
56
List 6 functions of protein.
1. Structure
2. Communication
3. Membrane transport
4. Enzymes
5. Recognition and protection
6. Movement
7. Cell adhesion
57
Describe the structure function of proteins.
Keratin is a tough structural protein that gives strength to hair, nails and skin. While collagen is the most abundant and durable protein that is present in our bones, cartilage and teeth.
58
Describe the communication function of protein?
Some proteins function as hormones, cell to cell signals and receptors.
59
Describe the membrane transport function of proteins.
Some proteins form channels in cell membranes to determine what can pass through and when. While some protein can act as a carrier to bind to solute particles and transport them to the other side of the membrane. These proteins can also turn nerve and muscle activity on or off.
60
Describe the enzymes function of proteins.
Globular space proteins act as enzymes which speeds up the metabolic reactions.
61
Describe the recognition and protection function of proteins.
Glycoproteins are essential for cell recognition and antibodies are protein that are responsible for attaching and neutralising organisms that invade the body as well as immunity.
62
What is the movement function of proteins?
Proteins can change shape which allows intercellular transport of molecules. Which are also known as motor proteins.
63
Describe the cell adhesion function of proteins.
Protein help bind cells like cell adhesion molecules to keep cells and tissues from falling apart and enables cells to bind to enemy cells such as cancer cells. While also allowing the sperm to fertilise the egg.
64
Define enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. They allow biochemical reactions to occur rapidly at a normal body temperature.
65
What are the 3 steps of an enzymatic reaction involving the breakdown of sucrose?
1. Substrate approaches active site on enzyme molecule
2. Substrate binds to active site forming enzyme- substrate complex
3. Enzymes break covalent bonds between monomers in substrate.
66
What are nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids make up our genetic codes and pass it along to our children.
67
What are the 3 principle components of nucleotides?
1. A single / double carbon-nitrogen ring (nitrogenous base)
2. A sugar
3. One or more phosphate groups
4. ATP
68
List 9 types of cell shapes.
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal
3. Columnar
4. Polygonal
5. Stellate
6. Spheroidal
7. Discoidal
8. Fusiforms
9. Fibrous
69
What is a squamous cell shape? where can it be found?
A thin, flat and scaly shape with a bludge where the nucleus is.
Lines the oesophagus and surface layer of the skin.
70
What is the cuboidal cell shape? Where can it be found?
Squarish looking, equal in height and width.
Found in the kidney tubules and liver.
71
What is the columnar cell shape? Where can it be found?
Taller than wide.
Inner lining cells of the stomach and intestines.
72
What is the polygonal cell shape? Where can it be found?
Irregular angular shape with 4 or more sides.
Found in the epidermis or hepatocytes.
73
What is the stellate cell shape? Where can it be found?
Star like shape.
Cell bodies of many nerve cells
74
What is the spheroidal cell shape? Where is it found?
Round to oval.
Found in egg cells and white blood cells.
75
What is the discoidal cell shape? Where is it found?
Disc shaped.
Found in red blood cells.
76
What is the fusiform cell shape? Where is it found?
Spindle shaped, elongated with thick middle and tapered at both ends.
Found in smooth muscle cells.
77
What is the fibrous cell shape? Where is it found?
Long, slender and threadlike.
Found in the axons (nerve fibres) of nerve cells
78
What is the size of the human cell?
Around 10-15 um in diameter.
79
What are the limitations on cell size?
Cell growth can increase volume more than the surface area.
If cells grow to big the ability to absorb nutrients reduces.
If the cell grows to big the ability to remove waste reduces.
Too much cytoplasm needing nourishment and not enjoy membrane surface for nutrient and waste exchange.
80
What are the 3 major components of a cell?
1. Plasma membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
81
What is a plasma membrane?
Membrane found in cells that separates the interior and of the cell from the outside
82
What is cytoplasm?
Fluid inside a cell but outside it’s nucleus
83
What is a nucleus?
Any various complex organic acids such as DNA or RNA that are composed of nucleotide chains
84
Describe the general structure of the plasma membrane.
Functions as a barrier between substances intercellular and extra cellular to the cells.
Consists of phospholipid bilayer with embedded membrane proteins. The plasma membrane is 45-50% lipids, 45-50% proteins and 4-8% carbohydrates.
85
What is the function of the lipid portion of the plasma membrane?
Allows substances that are lipid soluble such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroids to dissolve through the membrane easily.
It also functions as a liquid in which other molecules such as proteins are suspended.
The cholesterol in the membrane provides stability when needed by limiting the movement of phospholipids.
86
What are the 6 functions of the protein portion of the plasma membrane?
1. To act as a receptor that binds to chemical messengers
2. To act as membrane enzymes that break down chemical messengers and terminate their effect
3. To act as ion channels that allow ions to pass into and out of the cell
4. To act as gated ion channels that allow ions through at certain times
5. To act as a cell identity marker
6. To act as cell adhesion molecule that binds one cell to another
87
What is the function of the carbohydrate portion of the plasma membrane?
It forms a surgery coat of glycolipids and glycoproteins which enables a unique fuzzy cell surface coating that acts a cell’s identity tag, cell recognition, adhesion and protection.
88
Define microvilli and cilia and compare and contrast their functions.
Microvilli and cilia are extensions of the plasma membrane.
Microvilli don’t move while the cilia can move.
Microvilli increase the surface area of a cell and cilia moves substances over the surface of their cells.
Microvilli are supported by actin filaments while cilia are supported by microtubules.
Microvilli are abundant on cells involved in absorption whereas cilia can be found on cells where substances need to be moved across them.
89
What is selectively permeable membrane and what is its significance?
Allows certain substances to pass through and controls what enters or leaves the cell
Creates a difference in distribution of positive and negative charged ions which creates an electrical gradient important in nerve conduction and muscle contraction
90
What is simple diffusion and filtration?
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
Filtration is when particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by hydrostatic pressure.
For example, filtration of nutrients through gaps blood capillary walls into tissue fluid
91
What are the 5 factors that affect the rate of diffusion?
Temperature - diffusion is driven by kinetic energy of the particles and the temperature is a measure of that kinetic energy. The warmer the substance is the more rapidly it’s particles diffuse.
Molecular weight - larger molecules are sluggish and move slower .
Steepness of concentration gradient - refers to the concentration difference between two points. Particles diffuse more quickly if there is a greater concentration difference.
Membrane surface area - the apical surface of cells specialised for absorption is often extensively folded into microvilli. This makes more membrane available for particles to diffuse through.
Membrane permeability - diffusion through a membrane depends on how permeable it is to the particles. Non polar, hydrophobic and lipid-soluble substances diffuse through the phospholipid regions of a plasma membrane. Water and small charged, hydrophilic solutes don’t mix with lipids so they diffuse through channel proteins in the membrane.
92
What is osmosis and osmotic pressure?
Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of low solute concentration to high concentration.
Osmotic pressure is the amount of hydrostatic pressure required to stop osmosis.
It is the pulling force in water due to the presence of solutes in a solution.
93
What is osmolarity and tonicity and explain their importance?
Osmolarity is the number of osmoles solute per litre of solution.
Tonicity is the ability of a solution to affect fluid volume and pressure within a cell. Which depends on the concentration and permeability of solute.
Osmolarity is important as it indicates the concentration of all the particles dissolved in body fluid. It is measured in clinical laboratory for diagnosis of disorders related to small molecule poisoning or renal function etc.
Tonicity decides whether a cell can maintain water balance. It plays an important role in osmoregulation.
94
What is a hypotonic solution?
A low concentration of non-permeating solutes and cells absorb water, swell and May burst.
95
What is a hypertonic solution?
High concentration of non-permeating solutes and cells lose water and shrink.
96
What is a isotonic solution?
Has the same solute concentration compared to the intercellular solute concentration.
Is normal
97
State and describe 3 methods of carrier-mediated transport.
Facilitated diffusion - transport of solute across membrane through a protein carrier down its concentration gradient. Changes shape then releases solute onto the other side of the membrane and no ATP is required.
Primary active transport - transport of solute across membrane through a carrier protein up against its concentration gradient. ATP is required to change shape.
Secondary active transport - uses the stored energy of an electro chemical gradient to move both an ion and a second solute across the plasma membrane.
98
Define vesicular transport and distinguish between the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis.
Vesicular transport is the transport of large particles, fluid droplets or numerous molecules at once through the vesicle.
Vesicle either fuse with the membrane and add to name and (exocytosis) or pinches off from membrane (endocytosis) and takes material away from the membrane into the cell.
Exocytosis is the transport of materials out of the cell by the fusion with the plasma membrane of vesicles formed within the cytoplasm.
Endocytosis is the transport of materials into the cell through vesicles formed from the plasma membrane.
99
State and describe the 3 forms of endocytosis.
Phagocytosis is when the cell eats large solid particles (e.g. bacteria, virus or worn out cells) and occurs in only specialised cells.
Pinocytosis is when the cell membrane caves in then pinches off into the cytoplasm with droplets of extra cellular fluid containing molecules and occurs in all cells.
Receptor mediated endocytosis is when specific receptors bind to specific ligands and forms a clathrin-coated vesicle in the cytoplasm.
100
Define and differentiate between the cytoplasm and the cytosol.
Cytoplasm is the space within the cell between the nuclear membrane and the plasma membrane consisting of the cytosol and the organelles.
Cytosol is the liquid found within cells and is the fluid component of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles.
101
Define organelle and list 6 examples.
Organelle are specialised structures within cells that have characteristics shapes and perform specific functions such as cellular growth, producing ATP and maintenance and manufacturing proteins.
There are 6 types of organelles:
1. Nucleus
2. Ribosomes
3. Golgi complex
4. Lysosomes
5. Endoplasmic reticulum
6. Mitochondria
102
Identify and describe the structure of the nucleus and explain the function.
The nucleus is usually the largest organelle.
A nuclear envelope is surrounded by a double membrane and is perforated by nuclear pores formed by rings of proteins.
Chromatin is composed of DNA and protein.
Nucleoli is where the ribosomes are produced.
It’s function is to house the genetic material of the cell (DNA) that controls all cell processes and manufactures ribosomes in nucleoli.
103
Identify and describe the structure of the endoplasmic reticulum and distinguish between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum and explain their functions.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a system of cisternae enclosed by a unit membrane.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has parallel cisterns and flattened sacs covered with ribosomes. It’s function is to do a synthesis of phospholipids and proteins of plasma membranes.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has tubular cisterns and branch more extensively and lack ribosomes. It’s function is to detoxify alcohol, alcohol , a synthesis of fatty acids and steroids.
104
Identify and describe the structure of ribosomes and explain their function.
Ribosomes are small granules of protein and RNA found in the nucleoli, cytosol, rough endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope.
Uses directions in messenger RNA to assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the DNA.
105
Identify and describe golgi complex and explain its functions.
The golgi complex consists of 3-20 which are small, flattened and curved membranous sacs with bulging swollen edges.
It’s function is to modify sorts, packaged and add carbohydrates components to glycoproteins from rough endoplasmic reticulum, forms secretory vesicles that discharge proteins through exocytosis into extra cellular fluid. It also forms membrane vesicles that transport fresh protein and phospholipids to plasma membrane and forms transport vesicles that become lysosomes.
106
Identify and describe the structure of lysosomes and explain their function.
Lysosomes are membrane enclosed vesicles that form from the golgi complex and contain powerful digestive hydrolytic enzymes.
It’s function is to allow intracellular digestion of large molecules (e.g. bacteria), autophagy, autolysis and break down or stored glycogen in liver to release glucose.
107
Identify and describe mitochondria and explain its function.
Mitochodria are organelles specialised for synthesising ATP.
Consists of an inner and outer membrane.
Quite mobile and can change shape.
The powerhouse of the cells because they provide ATP from organic compounds through absorption by enzymes.
