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Making observations Flashcards

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1
Q

Reliability

A

ability to get the same results if you repeat your test/ measurement under similar conditions

more variability = less reliable

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2
Q

Reliability of physical measures

A

e.g. height or weight
repeatedly measure a fixed quantity of the variable
taking the variation in the variable to get a precise measurement result

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3
Q

Reliability of Population estimates

A

measurement of opinion, attitude
we can just estimate the average value of the variable when we take a sample of the whole population

Margin of error = there can be a variation from sample to sample

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4
Q

Reliability of psychological tests of measurement

A

tendency to change over time

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5
Q

test-restest reliability

A

that you administer the test twice with a longer amount of time in between
Use: assessing stable characteristics of individuals e.g. intelligence
variable is unlikely to change over time
-you can extend the amount of time that participants won’t remember the first test

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6
Q

Parallel forms reliability

A

Goal: not remembering the questions from the previous test
- 2nd administration: using a similar form (items are equivalent to the one in the first form)
- assessing the same knowledge, skills
Problem:
- if the forms are not that equivalent they may change the results/performance

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7
Q

Split- half reliability

A

two parallel forms of the test in one test

rated and scored separately

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8
Q

Validity

A

does a test/measurement really measure what it should/ is intended to measure

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9
Q

Forms of validity

A
  1. Face validity
  2. Content validity
  3. Criterion- related validity
  4. Construct validity
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10
Q

Face validity

A

how well a measurement instrument (e.g. test of intelligence) appears to measure (just by its appearance) what it is designed to measure

e.g. mathematical ability - Mathematical problem

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11
Q

Content validity

A

how good does the test represents the learned knowledge, skills, behavior that it is actually designed to measure

e.g. final exam

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12
Q

Criterion-related validity

A

use of test score of an individual to make predictions on another scale.

  1. concurrent validity: comparing with a established test
  2. predict validity (later outcome)

e.g. using high school grades to predict the success at the college

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13
Q

Construct validity

A

not observable variable
developed to explain a behavior or idea with a theory (e.g. free will)
Having a concept in mind about
theoretical construct
(e.g. low self-esteem related to higher fast food consumption

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14
Q

Differences in measurement

A
  • measures can be reliable but inaccurate
  • measure can be reliable but not invalid
  • measure is unreliable; low validity
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15
Q

Differences in validity

A
  1. External validity= better to generalize
  2. internal validity= making better prediction about a behavior
    e. g. intelligence, self-esteem, motivation)
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16
Q

Difference in sensitivity

A

some dependent variable are more sensitive to manipulations than others

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17
Q

Range effects

A
  1. floor effect

2. ceiling effect

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18
Q

floor effect

A

variable reaches the lowest possible value

  • task too difficult= everyone scores low
  • low range limit
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19
Q

ceiling effect

A

variable reaches the highest possible value

  • too easy task= too many score high
  • top-range limit
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20
Q

Behavioral measurements

A
  1. Frequency of responding =counting the number of how many times the behavior during a specific period
  2. latency= how long does it take until someone responds to a stimulus
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21
Q

Reactivity of human

A
  • social history of participant
  • personal interpretations = guide behavior
    observed behavior = not the normal behavior
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22
Q

Demand characteristics

A

= cues from the experimenter/context that communicate the purpose of the study
asking what is the experiment about

  • pre-existing attitude of the participant
  • paying attention to irrelevant cues
  • formulating hypothesis about the nature of the experiment
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23
Q

Role attitude cues

A

signal for the participant to change the attitude; conforming to a new role of participant

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24
Q

Cooperative attitude

A

strong desire to please the experimenter
-helping science
-desire to perform as well as possible
= good participant effect

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25
Apprehensive attitude
worrying what will happen being defensive experimenter may evaluate participants behavior
26
Negative attitude
trying to ruin the experiment
27
Experimenter bias
behavior of the experimenter influences the results of the experiment
28
Expectancy effects
experimenter has previous expectations about the outcome of the experiment and the participants - treating various groups differently ; consistent with the wished results - leading participants to a specific behavior
29
How we can reduce bias ?
in general with blind technique 1. single-blind technique 2. double-blind technique 3. Automate experiment
30
blind technique
that the hypothesis and the assigned conditions of an experiment is not known -experimenter/subject are not aware of it
31
single blind technique
only the experimenter/or the subject don't know the given treatment or the intended behavior of the experiment
32
double blind technique
both, experimenter and participant don't know the given treatment and the hypothesis of the experiment
33
How can we correct or detect problems
1. Pilot study | 2. Manipulation check
34
Pilot study
Small scale study before the actual study -detecting errors Help for: - Clarifying instructions - finding appropriate levels of observational methods
35
Manipulation check
see if the manipulations of the participants had the intended effects - if participant really got the ideas of the study; not find out about the purpose (questionnaires about perception of the study)
36
What are non experimental research designs
1. Correlational design | 2. Experimental design
37
Correlational design
you only make observations about the variables | -no manipulation of the variables
38
Experimental research
direct manipulation of the independent variables | + observing the effects of manipulations
39
How to develop behavioral categories?
1. operational definitions= state what defines your observed behavior, in which category would you put it category e.g. verbal aggression; verbal assertion - What behavior do you want to observe?
40
How to quantify behavior
1. Frequency method 2. duration method 3. Intervals method
41
Frequency method
= checking how often a specific behavior occurs within a time period
42
duration methode
= how long the occurred behavior lasts
43
intervals method
= splitting the observation in time intervals/sequences and looking if the observed behavior occurs or not. - only one instance of behavior can occur
44
Sampling techniques for behavior observations
1. Time sampling 2. Individual sampling 3. Event sampling 4. Recording
45
Time Sampling
scanning the group over a specific time for; recording observed behaviors
46
Individual sampling
only observe a single individual over a given time period | Use: get to know the organization of an individuals behavior over time
47
Event Sampling
only observing one kind of behavior recording all instances of the behavior Appropriateness: giving one behavior more importance than the others
48
Recording
making permanent recordings of the behavior | - used for later analysis
49
Advantages of recording
- you can it watch several times again (getting missed scene) - you can show it to other researchers (multiple observers) - it is easier to hide a camera than yourself = less distraction of the observed subjects
50
What is a naturalistic observation?
when you observe participants in their natural environment. - no attempt to control variables
51
What are characteristics of naturalistic observations?
- act of observing may disturb the natural behavior of the subjects - Habituating (letting your subjects get used to you)
52
what are the advantages of naturalistic observations ?
you have a high external validity
53
What are disadvantages ?
- not investigating the underlying cause of your behavior - it is time consuming - uneasy to get the natural habit of the subjects
54
What is Ethnography ?
studying a behavioral or social system - describing functioning of cultures ----> studying social interactions and expressions between groups and individuals - studying social structure of the group
55
What kind of observations can you do ?
Participant observations | Non-participant observations
56
What are participant observations ?
being a functional member of the studied group
57
What is a non-participant observation?
observe as a non-member
58
What non-experimental research designs are there?
1. Naturalistic observations 2. Unobtrusive observations 3. Ethnography 4. Sociometry 5. Case History 6. Archival Research 7. Content Analysis
59
What is an unobtrusive observation?
observation that does not alter the natural behavior of the subject
60
What is Sociometry?
identifying and measuring interpersonal relationships within a group (e.g. friendships)
61
What is case history?
observe and reporting only a single case | case= object of the study
62
What is Archival Research
studying existing records (e.e. court records, published article) = literature research
63
What is a Content Analysis?
analyzing written or spoken recordings of specific events
64
What kind of Surveys are there ?
1. Field survey = directly asking about behavior 2. Demographics 3. Predictor variable 4. Criterion Variable
65
What are the different Questionnaire items ?
1. Open-Endend questions 2. restrictived items 3. partially open ended questions 4. rating scale 5. likert scale
66
How to administer a survey
1. Mail Survey 2. Internet survey 3. Telephone survey 4. Group administered survey 5. Face to face interviews
67
What types of survey research is available ?
1. Observational techniques 2. Field study 3. Correlational study
68
What are observational techniques ?
that you only observe the subject - only guessing the underlying mechanisms of the observed behavior - no measurement

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