Material Covered Before the Scientific Racism

Question 1

Anthropology

Answer 1

the study of humans, it’s a holistic discipline (meaning it studies all aspects of humanity in relation to each other)

Question 2

Biological Anthropology

Answer 2

the study of humans as biological organisms, it studies where humans originated from, origins of natural selection, and the biological concept of race

Question 3

Cultural Anthropology

Answer 3

the study of variations in the beliefs and behaviours of different human groups, how they learned and acquired as members of society

Question 4

Early Anthropological Theories were based on?

Answer 4

based on the theory of natural selection, but often confused the idea of “evolution” with that of “progress”

Question 5

Lewis Henry Morgan

Answer 5

he proposed an unilateral evolution held that all humans go through a similar sequence of development, a form of Cultural Determinism.

• and order was created that ranked cultures from lower savagery, to barbarianism, to civilization due to their technological innovations
• this classification was ethnocentric, as it implied that only a culture that has a writing system is civilized

Question 6

Franz Boas’s Historical Particularism

Answer 6

(arguing against the Henry Morgans classification)
he argued that each culture is the unique product of all the influences that it was subjected to in the past, which made cross-cultural generalizations very suspect.

• Boas argued that we have to look at the past to evaluate the culture
• The idea of cultural relativism grew, which mean that a society should be understood in terms of its own cultural practices

Question 7

Racism as Colonialism

Answer 7

by 1890, 90% of Africa was under the control of foreign powers, most predominantly Europe, also in 1890 all of the Americas were under the control of European powers or the US.

Question 8

Racism as Warfare

Answer 8

WWI & WWII killed over 60 million, ethnic cleansing is defined as removing a cultural group from a particular region, the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980’s killed 1 million, Gulf War killed 1 million

Question 9

Racism as Civil Rights

Answer 9

Apartheid in S.Africa led to repression, segregation, murder, and a loss of human rights for the black majority, civil rights movement in N.America continues today, Caste System in India basic civil rights to approx 200 million ppl

Question 10

Racism as Statelessness

Answer 10

the United Nations estimates that there are approx 15 million people affected worldwide, it occurs in both rich and poor countries.

Question 11

Colonization

Answer 11

where resources are taken and civil rights revoked (or not granted) to inhabitants

Question 12

Economic Imperialism

Answer 12

is the a nation-state can control resources in another country

Question 13

Xenophobia

Answer 13

the fear of strangers and other people, especially the strangeness of their culture or actions

Question 14

Oppression

Answer 14

both real and perceived

Question 15

Fear of Change

Answer 15

related to xenophobia, it is sometimes linked with immigrants, they are often used to scape problems or issues, government may use this to transform them into “they enemy.”

Question 16

Social and Economic

Answer 16

those who are in power will try to maintain their power, this was common in the 1800’s and a modern example is Mubarak in Egypt, the common understand was that the poor were fundamentally unable to govern themselves. Therefore, a group of elite was essential within society.

Question 17

The two main questions that arose when asked by Greek Philosophers were:

Answer 17

how and why are humans different.

Question 18

Herodotus (484-425 BC)

Answer 18

explained differences among humans as a result of natural forces, as oppose to supernatural forces. He believe that the environment was responsible for the differences in behaviour and physical characteristics.

Question 19

Aristotle (348-322 BC)

Answer 19

believe that every was originally created in the desired by the creator and that the nature of things could not change.
- he was a teleologist (ID), believed in a natural hierarchy of organisms — a theory later called “The Great Chain of Being” (Euros had both +/- traits like Asians, Greeks were in the middle), the Christian Church adopted his position (that a Creator made the world ideal) and for 1000 years, speculation about evolution was taboo

Question 20

In the 15th Century, attempts at trying to explain differences moved from religious towards

Answer 20

on that challenged accepted beliefs. There were two main categories of belief regarding the origin of humans…

Question 21

There were two main categories of belief regarding the origin of humans…

Answer 21

Monogenists and Polygenists

Question 22

Monogenists

Answer 22

believed in a single origin of all humans with Adam and Eve as the original pair.

Question 23

Polygenists

Answer 23

believed that human groups had different origins & were the result of a different Creator

Question 24

early attempts to explain the vast diversity of life forms could not escape

Answer 24

the notion of fixity of species: the belief that once created, a species could not change

The Bible

Question 25

Degeneration

Answer 25

likely based on the Bible, as Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden. Once this happened, populations increased and spread away farther from the Garden of Eden. As a result, these groups revered to sub-human forms.

Question 26

Buffon’s description of Native American’s was based on...

Answer 26

he ones who had been captured as slaves or on the fact that most of them has relatively few children. He concluded that their “reproductive organ” must have degenerated

Question 27

Francois Bernier

Answer 27

believed that he was the first author to categorize races based on physical characteristic — he found that there are four or five races of man — however, doesn’t make a clear distinction between humans and races.

Question 28

Francois Bernier: the five races

Answer 28

the five races: Whites, Blacks, Asians, Browns, and Northern European natives his writings are not scientific, but describe the individual races (especially women)

Question 29

Francois Bernier is important because...?

Answer 29

because he first categorized races based on physical appearance

Question 30

Carl Linnaeus

Answer 30

devised the binomial nomenclature system (the devising or choosing of names for things) for all living organisms. His organization classified humans with primates, this caused conflict as humans were widely thought of as superior.

Question 31

Carl Linnaeus: Four Types included in his organization were

Answer 31

the Americanus, Africanus, Europeanus, Asiaticus

Question 32

Carl Linnaeus: never mentions what in his book?

Answer 32

He never mentions races in his book — this posed a question for ppl, as race is never defined

Question 33

Immanuel Kant

Answer 33

his essay was written to combat polygenesis & defend the concept of race as valid. He separates/ distinguishes race from species + says that humans are all the same species, but there are subspecies to divide them.

Question 34

Immanuel Kant: Important because?

Answer 34

Important: as he is the first to rigorously describe the scientific definition of race

Question 35

Immanuel Kant: his writing argues...

Answer 35

argues that the first humans contained the seeds of all 4 races — the seed was actualized based on environmental conditions

Question 36

Immanuel Kant: the description of his races

Answer 36

1st Race: Noble Blonde from humid cold, 2nd Race: Copper Red from dry cold, 3rd Race: Black from humid heat, 4th Race: Olive Yellow from dry heat

Question 37

Johann Gottfried von Herder

Answer 37

once a student of Kant, but argues against the usefulness of the concept of race since he saw many grey areas when it came to skin colour; the colours appear to run into each other - because of this, Herder felt that “race” was not overly useful for classification

Question 38

Johann Friedrich Blumenback

Answer 38

includes all humans in the same species & does not use the term race. Instead, he recognized five principle varieties of mankind and the arbitrary nature of the categories of race, but believes that some were more “natural”

Question 39

Johann Friedrich Blumenback: important because

Answer 39

he organized his categories to reinforce the idea of population degeneration through his connotations

Question 40

G.W.F Hegel

Answer 40

rejected the usefulness of race to prove superiority of races over others, instead he divided mankind into cultures, arguing that it is a more useful way to divide humans.

Question 41

G.W.F Hegel dividing mankind into cultures resulted in...?

Answer 41

resulted in the number of races raising from 4 or 5 to upwards of 80 (argued that Caucasians are civilization builders and other races play a small role in history) `

Question 42

Arthur de Gobineau

Answer 42

he perpetuated the idealized view of Europeans by arguing that every single human race has degenerated, expect Europeans. He believed that races are maintained by the law of repulsion expect Euros who had a law of attraction

Question 43

Law of Attraction

Answer 43

means that they are physically attracted to other cultures, despite these cultures not being interested in Europeans. As a result, Europeans are civilization builders by mating w/ people around the world, civilization would improve. - The European stock in Europe should not become diluted through, so Europeans must travel to these cultures. He felt that race mixing was good, but not in Europe.

Question 44

skulls were measured for many reasons

Answer 44

they are believed to not change from generation to generation, they can determine ancestry, measure the intelligence and personality of an individual, measure easily for all populations and not be intrusive

Question 45

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) & Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1823)

Answer 45

together, their collective work formed the basis of phrenology, which is the study of the skull’s contours to determine an individuals latent abilities and talents

Question 46

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) & Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1823): important because

Answer 46

to remember that the notion of “fixity of species” dominated and this reaffirmed the belief in distinct races, both physically and behaviourally

Question 47

Anders Reitzius

Answer 47

he devised an index to divide the shape of the skull into three categories based on relative length and width:

Question 48

Anders Reitzius: what were the names

Answer 48

Dolicocephalic: Long and Narrow Mesophilic: Intermediate Brachycephalic: Round or Short and Wide

Question 49

Pierre Paul Brocca

Answer 49

he further developed cranial measurements in order to link cranial features with intelligence, personality, temperament, etc… although he later refuted the notion that races could be separated based on this approach, his influence remained into the 20th century.

Question 50

Samuel Morton (1799-1851)

Answer 50

believed that brain size was more indicative of intelligence and abilities, his work found out that races differed in cranial capacity, therefore in intelligence.

Question 51

Samuel Morton: determined what through faulty experimentation

Answer 51

that Europeans had larger brains and Native Americans and Blacks had the smallest — this have been disproven

Question 52

Both Darwin and Wallace discovered the...

Answer 52

the theory of natural selection although both interpreted it very differently.

Question 53

Darwin argued what about the theory of natural selection?

Answer 53

argued that humans had evolved just like any other animal, through natural processes

Question 54

Wallace argues what about the theory of natural selection?

Answer 54

argued that humans evolved like animals, but a “divine will” guided evolution

Question 55

Natural Selection and Race: is the replacement of a ?

Answer 55

status by an evolving world

Question 56

Natural Selection and Race: is the refutation of ?

Answer 56

cosmic teleology

Question 57

Natural Selection and Race: is the application to ?

Answer 57

humans of the principle of common descent

Question 58

Natural Selection and Race: is the explanation of the ?

Answer 58

natural world in terms of natural selection

Question 59

Natural Selection and Race: is the replacement of ?

Answer 59

essentialism by popular thinking

Question 60

Natural Selection explained evolution as consisting of two important principles

Answer 60

1. the relative stability of species and | 2. the maintenance of variation within species

Question 61

Herbert Spencer introduced...

Answer 61

Theory of Social Darwinism by combining this and the concept of stability.

Question 62

Spencer believed that the...

Answer 62

notion of survival of the fittest applied to humans; individuals at the the top (in any society) were more evolved while the ones at the bottom were less evolved.

Question 63

Race initially referred to a

Answer 63

lineage of a person, it was then changed to refer to the physical types of humans and the abilities to divide humans based on sight, from here it was transformed to describe subspecies

Question 64

Social Stratification

Answer 64

transformed the term of race to refer to status

Question 65

Economic Stratification

Answer 65

then made races into classes

Question 66

Essentialism

Answer 66

the belief that social groups and their members have a true essence that is irreducible and unchanging

Question 67

Environmentalism

Answer 67

the belief that races (read: ethnic groups) are the products of their shared physical environment

Question 68

Racialization

Answer 68

to impose racial character on a group of people based on physical or cultural characteristics.

Question 69

Heredity

Answer 69

the movement of genes from generation to generation

Question 70

Biological Diversity

Answer 70

how much variation exists

Question 71

Heritability

Answer 71

the effect that biology and/or the environment play on traits, this is directly related to the “nature vs. nurture debate”

Question 72

Science as Legitimation

Answer 72

scientific arguments that are used to convince the public

Question 73

The origin of modern knowledge about genetics began with...

Answer 73

Mendell, he used peas to experiment on genetics. They were useful because they had easily distinguished characteristics (i.e., only two variations), one main difference between the peas were their colour and texture.

Question 74

Alleles

Answer 74

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome — various variety of a gene

Question 75

Genotype

Answer 75

the genetic expression of an allele

Question 76

Phenotype

Answer 76

the physical expression of the genotype, natural selection acts on the phenotype, as that is what it “sees”

Question 77

Dominant

Answer 77

refers to the allele that is displayed

Question 78

Recessive

Answer 78

refers to the allele that is not dominant (dominant is not synonymous with better)

Question 79

Homozygous

Answer 79

the same alleles are paired

Question 80

Heterozygous

Answer 80

different alleles are paired

Question 81

An important allele that is sometimes used to determine races is

Answer 81

blood type, they are either A,B or O - A and B are co-dominant and O is recessive: often heterozygous alleles are paired — this posed a problem for early classification of humans, as often the same allele was present among all ethnic groups, but it had different penetration

Question 82

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Answer 82

a general term that refers to any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel’s laws.

Question 83

Polygenic Inheritance

Answer 83

a trait affected by the result of the interaction of several genes (i.e., stature, skin colour)

Question 84

Intermediate Expression

Answer 84

the heterozygous genotype is intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes (i.e., tenor, baritone, bass)

Question 85

Co-Dominance

Answer 85

both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous person

Question 86

Modifying Genes

Answer 86

a second gene that alters the expression of the first (e.g. cataracts)

Question 87

Regulatory Genes

Answer 87

initiate or block the activity of other genes

Question 88

Incomplete Penetrance

Answer 88

not always expressed in the individual (i.e., diabetes)

Question 89

Pleiotropy

Answer 89

a single allele may affect an entire series of traits (i.e., sickle-cell anemia)

Question 90

Epigenetic's

Answer 90

heritable changes in gene function that occur without a change in the sequence of the DNA

Question 91

Are Populations Genetically Static?

Answer 91

Populations evolve by a process called microevolution, which is the change in allele frequency that occur from one generation to the next — over long periods of time, microevolution produces more obvious changes in a species (macroevolution)

Question 92

Sources of Biological Variation

Answer 92

Mutations, Sexual Reproduction, Random Mating

Question 93

Mutations

Answer 93

are the only new source of alleles in a species

Question 94

Sexual Reproduction

Answer 94

recombines the parents DNA to form new combinations

Question 95

Random Mating

Answer 95

the process whereby every allele has equal chance of being passed on to the next generation

Question 96

Adaptation

Answer 96

any change by which organisms respond to selection pressure (anything in the environment that could potentially have a deleterious effect)

Question 97

Genetic Adaptation

Answer 97

affects populations in response to selection pressure (over several generations); this applies only to populations

Question 98

Acclimatization

Answer 98

physical responses within individuals to environmental pressure (varies between a few days to months)

Question 99

Migration (Gene Flow)

Answer 99

is the movement of alleles from one population to another as a result of interbreeding

Question 100

Genetic Drift

Answer 100

is a change in allele frequencies as a result of random changes in population sizes. This makes the population more different and affects the small population.

Question 101

Founder Effect

Answer 101

small sub-population migrates away from parent population

Question 102

Bottleneck Effect

Answer 102

the removal of a large portion of the population because of natural disaster

Question 103

Mapping Biological Diversity

Answer 103

- Human populations differ in the frequency of alleles, not by the presence or absence of certain alleles. - While some alleles produce discrete variation, many produce continuous variation - Mapping the distribution of these alleles produces clines — Clines are the gradual changes in the frequency of genotypes or phenotypes over geographical space

Question 104

Why the Concept of Biological Races is Rejected

Answer 104

There is no natural way to classify humans into biologically meaningful categories, there are no “pure” races because all populations have been interbreeding with others throughout their history.

Question 105

Endogamous

Answer 105

interbreeding within the same group

Question 106

Out of Africa Model

Answer 106

humans originated less than 200 000 years ago from Africa, the population would be very small due to genetic drift, when the population then spread, variation was very small.

Question 107

Multi-regional Model

Answer 107

different populations acquired characteristics separately, with one single human species originating it