MCM Test 1 Flashcards
(147 cards)
1
Q
What makes up a nucleotide?
A
Phosphate group, nitrogenous base, sugar
2
Q
Which nucleotides are purines?
A
Adenine, Guanine
3
Q
Which nucleotides are pyrimidines?
A
Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil
4
Q
Between which molecules are phosphodiester bonds created?
A
Between a sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and phosphate of the next nucleotide.
5
Q
What is mRNA?
A
Messenger RNA. Transcribed from DNA and will be translated to a protein. Carries genetic code for protein.
6
Q
What is rRNA?
A
Ribosomal RNA. Structural and functional components of the ribosome.
7
Q
Which carbon contains or lacks a -OH group that characterizes the sugar as a ribose or deoxyribose?
A
2’ carbon. Deoxyribose has -H while ribose has -OH at 2’ spot.
8
Q
What is tRNA?
A
Transfer RNA. Helps incorporate amino acids into polypeptide chain.
9
Q
Where is pre-modified RNA found in a eukaryote?
A
Nucleus
10
Q
Where is a N-glycosidic bond formed?
A
Between nitrogenous base and sugar.
11
Q
What is RNAse H?
A
Machinery in DNA replication.
Replaces RNA primer with DNA
12
Q
Senesence
A
When a cell is tagged to no longer duplicate
Related to telomeres degrading into coding DNA
13
Q
Nucleosome
A
contains 8 histones wrapped by DNA.
histones= +
DNA= -
14
Q
Heterochromatic v Euchromatin
A
Heterochromatin- condensed, silenced genes
usually on periphery of nucleus
Euchromatin- accessible to transcription/replication
15
Q
Epigenetics
A
Histones have tails that can be modified to change chromatin structure
Modifications passed down
proteins maintain histone changes.
16
Q
How is RNA polymerase different from DNA polymerase
A
RNA poly:
can start without primer
has intrinsic helices function
is more error prone
17
Q
Types of RNA Polymerase
A
RNA Polymerase 1= rRNA
RNA Polymerase 2= All protein coding genes
RNA Polymerase 3= tRNA
remember 123 RAT= rRNA, All, tRNA
18
Q
Initiating Transcription
A
TFIID- recruiter first and contains TATA binding protein (TBP), activates RNA poly II –> TFIIB, TFIIF, TFIIE, TFIIH
TFIIH- phosphorylates SER 5 on RNA Pol tail which initiates it.
other factors fall off and RNA Pol is released from promoter.
19
Q
5’ capping
A
Methylated guanine cap added to 5' end
RNA pol carries proteins that are transferred at specific time.
Capping protein- binds to tail when SER 5 is
phosphorylated
Enzymes
Phosphotase- removes Pi from 5' end
Guanine transferase- adds GMP
Methyl transferase- adds methyl
20
Q
Splicing mechanism
A
specific A in intron attacks 5’ end and covalently bonds
3’ exon end will attack 5’ of other part
GU and AG are coming beginning/end of intron
Machinery: splicesome
21
Q
Splicesome
A
protein and RNA molecules
Assists with splicing.
22
Q
Poly A tail
A
RNA poly II recognizes poly A and cleavage signals
cstF and CpsF travel with RNA poly and get transferred to 3’ end
CstF= Cleavage stimulating factor CpsF= cleavage and polyadenylating factor
additional poly A bind proteins attach add length and shape
23
Q
What does a mRNA need to be transported out of nucleus?
A
Nuclear export receptor
24
Q
Transcription Factors
A
Bind to specific DNA upstream of promoter
two domains
DNA binding domain- binds specific DNA sequence
Activation domain- interacts with transcription factors
to initiate transcription
25
What are 3 ways to regulate transcription?
activators- bind to certain sequence to induce transcr.
repressors- bind to certain sequence to repress gene
Chromatin remodeling- change chromatin condensation
ex. HAT and HDAC
26
HAT
Histone acetyltransferase- coactivator adds acetyl group to histones to regulate transcription, accessible chromatin
27
HDAC
Histone deaceytlase- corepressor, remove acetyl, condense chromatin
28
CpG island
CG base pairs with methylated cytosine= condensed DNA
part of DNA methylation
29
DNA interference
dsRNA cleaved, finds complimentary strand and silence it
```
RISC= destroy
RITS= silence
```
30
3 periods of embryonic development
Early period- 0-2 weeks, low sensitivity, high mortality rate
Embryonic period- 3-8, high sensitivity, organs being made
Fetal period 9-38 weeks, decreasing sensitivity, functional growth
31
What kind of cells are created from meiosis 2?
haploid cells
32
when does cross over take place
prophase 1 of meiosis 1
33
Origin of gamete forming cells?
Primordial germ cell arise from epiblast (week 2)
Migrate to yolk sac (week 3)
Migrate to posterior abdominal wall to the genital ridge (week 4-6)
34
Male gametogenesis
primordial germ --> spermatogonium --> primary spermatocyte (meiosis I) --> secondary sperm. (meiosis II) --> spermatid > mature spermatozoa
35
Oogenesis
primordial germ > oogonium > primary oocyte STOP IN Prophase I
upon puberty
primary oocyte > secondary oocyte STOP in metaphase 2
if fertilized, meiosis 2 completes and becomes ovum.
36
Follicle development
primordial follicle, squamous cells thicken to granolas
primary follicle (once zona pell. forms)
Secondary follicle when antrum appears
Follicle matures midway through female cycle (day 14)
Graafin Follicle- when antrum grows and granolas
cells form cumulus oorphourus
Follicle bursts-- secondary oocyte goes to pelvic cavity
and picked up by timbre of tubes
Follicle becomes corpus luteum
37
When and Why does the antrum appear in follicular development?
Appears when it's a secondary follicle.
Because theca interna is secreting fluid.
38
name the Gonadotropins during female reproductive cycle and what they effect.
FSH- works on growing follicle, ovulation
| LH- maturation of follicle, ovulation, corpus luteum
39
Where are certain GLUT transporters found?
GLUT 1- most cells (RBC, nervous)
GLUT 2- liver, B pancreas
GLUT 3- most cells
GLUT 4- skeletal, adipose--- insulin regulated
40
Normal blood glucose levels
```
range: 4-6 mM (72-110 mg/dL)
Absolute 5mM (90 mg/dL)
```
41
Hexokinase
glucose --> glucose-6 phosphate
inhibited by G6P
42
Glucokinase
In liver with hexokinase (does same thing)
Inhibited by G6P, but insulin can override that
43
PFK 1
Phosphofruktokinase-- rate limiting enzyme for glycolysis
Fruktose 6P > fruktose 1, 6 bisP
high levels AMP, lets process happen
High levels of ATP or Citrate will inhibit enzyme
Glucagon inhibits
44
PFK II
In liver, if PFK-I is inhibited it can turn it on
Insulin turns PFK II on, fructose 6P > fructose 2,6 P
fruc 2,6P turns PFKI on.
Glucagon inhibits PFK II
45
Pyruvate Kinase
PEP > Pyruvate, creates ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)
Most common deficiency in glycolytic pathway
46
Why do we need two pathways in red blood cell
Glycolysis- provide ATP, Cation transfer, membrane impaired
HMS- Provides NADP, picks up electrons (now NADPH) so metHb > Hb and can bind oxygen
47
Role of 2,3 BPG in erythrocytes
increases oxygen release because it lowers Hb binding affinity for O2.
enhance oxygen delivery in
48
Two steps to charge tRNA?
| what is the enzyme?
1. ATP hydrolysis to add AMP to amino acid
| 2. amino-acyltrnatrnasynthetase adds AA to tRNA
49
Antibiotics that bind to SMALL subunit of ribosome?
1. tetracycline
2. spectinomycin
3. hygromycin B
4. streptomycin
50
Antibiotics that bind to LARGE subunit of ribosome?
1. streptogramin B
2. erythromycin
3. chloramphenicol
51
Initiation of translation?
met tRNA and small subunit find concuss sequence, initator factors
slide to find AUG
Large subunit joins
Elongates
52
Termination of translation?
Reach stop codon, release factor binds to A site, Water added and breaks chain, machinery dissociates
53
Chaperone (heat shock) proteins
HSP70- fold cotranslationally, binds to hydrophobic and assits folding, has a backup system, uses ATP
HSP60- capsule like, post translational, has hydrophilic inside to help place hydrophobic in middle. uses ATP
Calmexin- chemical modification, uses glucose, if improperly folded adds glucose and does it again
54
proteosome
19-S cap contains unfoldases
| cylinder chops it up
55
How to mark protein for destruction?
1. Activate enzyme to add ubiquitin
| 2. use degradation signal-- phosphorylation, unmasking
56
Unfolded protein response
Creates cascade that turns genes on for specific chaperone
57
what happens in cell during G1/S phase
Mitogen > G1/S cyclin > binds to G1/S Cdk > phosphorylates Rb > releases EIIF (transcription factor)> turns on genes.
58
What happens during S phase of cell cycle
S cyclin produced > activates S Cdk > Phosphorylates ORC > Releases Cdc6 > origin site open for replication machinery
59
M phase
1. M Cdk Phosphorylates- lamin, cohesin, condensin
2. MCdk turns on proteins to trigger microtubule arrangement. centromeres duplicate, polarize, attach to chromosomes
3. Chromosomes line up at metaphase with different microtubules
4. MCdk phosphorylates APC > degrades securin > releases seperase > cleaves cohesin
5. Telophase: RhoA > ROCK and formin> actin and myosin> contractile ring assembled.
60
What are the 3 types of protein transports?
Gated- cytosol to/from nucleus
Transmembrane- cytosol to anything except nucleus
Vesicular transport- between organelles
61
Describe Gated transport (import)
Through nuclear pore complexes, uses Ran GTP. Protein needs nuclear localizing signal
Import- protein attaches to receptor, brought into cell. Ran-GTP attaches to receptor and displaces protein. Receptor moves outside and hydrolysis happens on cytosol face. Receptor now ready for new protein.
62
Describe transport out of nucleus.
Through nuclear pore complex. Uses Ran-GTP. Protein needs nuclear export signal.
protein binds with receptor with Ran-GTP. Moves through nuclear pore. Hydrolysis of GTP happens at cytosol face. Protein is unloaded and receptor goes back.
63
Describe import of proteins into the mitochondria.
TOM- outer membrane complex (has receptor attached). TIM 23- Inner membrane
TOM recognizes protein signal and binds to it. brings into intermembrane space, and also through TIM 23. Translocation to matrix.
Signal peptidase cuts signal off.
64
What is Signal Peptidase?
enzyme that cleaves signals on proteins once they are transported
65
Role of Pex19?
Help arrange peroxisome
66
Describe peroxisome import
Proteins have signal sequence, importin (enzyme on membrane) binds to sequence and imports protein
67
2 varieties of transport to ER.
Cotranslational- translated on rough ER put directly into ER
| post translational-transcribed in cytosol, then moved to ER.
68
How does cotranslational transport happen
ribosome translating protein, SRP recognizes this sequence and binds. SRP receptor binds SRP/protein and feeds it to a translocation channel. two particles come off. protein moved inside and signal cleaved.
SRP- signal recogntition particle
SRP receptor- in ER membrane
69
How to get protein to ER membrane?
Protein has internal signal sequence. side (N or C terminus) closer to the + charged side will stick in cytosol.
70
Coated vesicle proteins and where they go.
Clathrin- from plasma membrane and between endosomal and golgi compartments. Receptors shoot inward and bind protein/adaptor. Bud off. membrane proteins surrounding vesicle may fall off.
COPI- early in secretory pathway. From Golgi
COPII- early in secretory pathway. From ER
71
How do vesicles bind to target?
Need: Rab GTP, Rab effector, V-snare, and tsnare.
1. Tethering. Rab GTP (on vesicle) interacts with Rab effector
2. docking. v snare (on vessicle) winds with t snare (target)
Rab directs to right spot on membrane. snares help with fusion
72
KDEL
KDEL receptors-- help return proteins to ER. There are some in ER but more in Golgi
Proteins have higher affinity for KDEL in golgi than ER. Allows for retrieval to ER.
73
Describe retrieval of proteins to ER.
proteins need a KDEL sequence signal and bind to KDEL.
KDELs are in membrane of golgi and ER. Once bound it goes with vesicle, coated appropriately for transport.
74
How does the Golgi modify proteins for transport
Different processing happens in different compartments
Usually adds oligosaccharide to protein (covalent modification)
75
Transporting protein to lysosome
protein in golgi
1. Add Manose 6 phosphate
2. M6P receptor (on golgi membrane) binds it.
3. form vesicle (clathrin coat), goes to endosome> lysosome
76
LDL transport example
LDL receptors bud off and go back to plasma membrane before reach lysosome.
77
Specialized endosome recycling
GLUT 4 receptors example. Specialized recycling requires receptor on membrane
Insulin binds to receptor which stimulates GLUTS to bud from endosomes and go to plasma membrane.
78
Types of exocytosis
Constitutive- not regulated, always happening. Ex. replenish plasma membrane cells.
Regulated- something is packaged but needs hormone stimulation before it will be released. ex. neurotransmitters
1. signal mediated diversion to lysosomes
2. signal mediated diversion to secretory vessicles.
79
Protein folding road map
Folding > Maintenance > Aggregation > clearance by degradation
80
2 Quality Control Systems
1. Ubiquitin proteosome system: targets single proteins soon after ribosomal release
2. Autophogy(sp?) degrade proteins that are longer lived, targets aggregates..
81
2 major ways misfolding can cause dysfunction in cells.
1. Misfolded protein loses function> downstream effects cause symptoms.
2. Misfolded protein gains new function, forms aggregates. Leads to toxicity and loss of function
82
2,3- BPG what does it do?
binds to B subunit of Hb to help unload it.
83
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
PDH- takes Pyruvate (3C) to acetyl CoA(2C) by redox
also produced: NADH and CO2
AcetylCoA inhibits Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Needs TLCFN
84
TLCFN
| Who needs these
```
Thiamine Phosphate
Lipoic acid
Coenzyme A
FADH2
NADH
```
PDH, and a ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
85
What inhibits PDH?
AcetylCoA
86
What inhibits the glycolysis enzymes?
Hexokinase- G6P
PFK-I- ATP and citrate
pyruvate kinase- inhibited by ATP
87
What enzymes do I need to know from TCA?
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
| a- ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
88
isocitrate dehydrogenase
isocitrate > a ketoglutarate
makes NADH + CO2
Inhibited by ATP and NADH
Very important because it is regulated by ATP, NADH
89
a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
a-ketoglutarate > succinyl coA
makes CO2 + NADH
Needs TLCFN
90
Galactose metabolism
lactase. Lactose > galactose
Lactase found in brush border of intestine
Galactokinase
Galactose > galactose-1-P
Gal-1P uridyltransferase
Galactose-1-P + UDP-Glucose > Glucose1P
91
Fructose metabolism
Fructose from Sucrose disacc. (table sugar, honey...)
Fructokinase= Fructose> fuctose 1P, use ATP
Brush border enzyme
Aldolase B= Fructose1P > Glyceraldehyde + DHAP
then on to glycolysis...
92
Alcohol metabolism
alcohol dehydrogenase:(cytoplasm)
alcohol > acetalaldehyde
```
aldehyde dehydrogenase(mitochondria)d
acetaldehyde > acetic acid
```
Both enzymes produce NADH
Acetaldehyde build up: nausea, vommiting, flushing, hypotension, headache (hangover smptoms)
Chronic alchohol consumption accummulates NADH, effecting major pathways. and major cause for alcohol related problems
93
Three ways Glucose 6P can go?
Glycogenesis
Pyruvate
Pentose phosphate pathway (HMP shunt)
94
Where is glycogen stored?
liver
muscle
kidney
95
Glycogenesis
Glc > glucose6P > glc1P > UDP Glu > glycogen
enzymes glucose 1P uridyl transferase
glucose 6P>UDP glucose
Gycogen synthase
UDP Glucose > glycogen
forms a 1,4 linkage
Activated by insulin
Glycogen branching
Adds a1,6 linkage to branch
Branched version more water soluble , more accessible ends
96
Glycogen Breakdown
Glycogen > G1P > G6P > Glucose (liver) or Pyruvate (muscle)
Glycogen phosphorylase-- breaks a1,4 bonds
glycogen debranching Enzyme: breaks a1,6
Phosphofructomutase: g1P > g6P
Glucose6phosphotase- (liver, turn g6P to glucose)
97
Roel of Transcription factors
```
TFIID- recognized TATA box, with TATA binding protein
TFIIB-
TFIIF- (stabilizes) polymerase
TFIIE-
TFIIH- Unwinds DNA
```
98
What activates/promotes glycogen phosphorylase and deb ranching?
Epinepherine
Glucagon (acts in liver and adipose)
AMP muscle (low ATP)
99
Where does the Carbon come from to form glucose during gluconeogenesis?
1. Pyruvate or Lactate
2. Alanin (amino acid)
3. Glycerol (TG breakdown)
100
Where does pyruvate go in order to start gluconeogenesis?
Mitochondria
101
Gluconeogenesis pathway
Pyruvate > oxoloacetate > PEP
Pyruvate carboxylase (mitochondria)- Pyruvate to OAA
Activated by AcetylCoA
PEP carboxykinase (cytoplasm)- OAA to PEP
Activated by glucagon and cortisol
Fructose6-bisphosphatase (cytoplasm)- F1,6bisp > F6P
activated by ATP, inhibited by F2,6bisP
102
What does Pyruvate carboxylase need?
ABC carboxylase
ATP (beta oxidation usually provides this)
Biotin
CO2
103
Cori Cycle
Muscle: Glucose > Pyruvate > lactate
lactate moves to liver
Liver: lactate > AcetylCoA > pyruvate > glucose
G6P needs NADH from the reaction that makes acetylCoA
104
Glucose Alanine cycle
Muscle: Glucose > pyruvate > alanine
Liver: Alanine > pyruvate > Glucose
105
What is Hexose Monophosphate Shunts job?
Ribose sugar for nucleotides (Ribose-5-P)
| NADPH (reducing molecule)
106
What are the enzymes in HMP shunt?
Glucose6P dehydrogenase
G6P > NADPH + 6 phosphoglucanate
Transketolase (TPP)
ribose 5P > glyceraldehyde 3P
107
Gluthion reductase
In erythrocytes
gives electrons to make water from superoxide?
needs electrons from NADPH to keep working
108
Why do heinz bodies form?
H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) accumulates and denatures hb = heinz bodies.
109
How does G6PD deficiency relate to hemolytic anemia?
NADPH not there to donate electrons to make water from superoxides.
hydrogen peroxide builds up and denatures membrane
110
Episodic G6PD deficiency
only 50% of the enzyme G6PD is active. When body is stressed it will have episodic hemolytic anemia.
111
Primitive streak
Start of gastrulation
| Epiblasts migrate through groove to differentiate into three germ tissues
112
Primitive (Hensen's) node
form at cranial end of primitive streak
Organizer- helps form longitudinal axis.
Forms the tissues that form notochord, epiblasts pass through the node.
113
Gastrulation
to form three germ layers
1. endoderm(deep)- epiblasts pass through spreak and displace hypoblasts
2. mesoderm(middle)- epiblasts invaginate.
3. ectoderm(superficial)- remaining epiblast cells
114
Notochord development
Primitive node gives rise to prechordal mesoderm
Invaginates node and gives rise to prechordal plate mesoderm
Some prechordal mesoderm mix with hypoblast to form a solid notochord
notochord is inducing structure for axial skeleton
Notochord will be next to ECTOderm, and induces thickening of ectoderm to form the neural plate, or neuroectoderm
115
Neuralation
The neuroectoderm give rise to the central and peripheral nervous system and neural crest cells.
116
What does the neural chord persist as in an adult?
Nucleus pulpous of the intervertebral disc.
117
Embryonic folding
Lateral fold: (day 21 start)
Cephalocaudal fold: (day 17is)
118
Ectoderm derivatives
Surface ectoderm:
epidermis, hair, nails
Glands: sweat, sebaceous and lactiferous
Sensory epithelium of ears, nose, tongue, lens of eye, membranous labyrinth ear
Neuroectoderm:
Neural tube (neurulation)
Neural crest; PNS, retina
119
Mesoderm derivatives
Paraaxial:
Somites; bone (vert column); ribs; skeletal muscle;
dermis; tendons and ligaments; cartilage
Intermediate:
Urinary and reproductive tissue
Lateral plate:
Connective tissue, muscle, body wall, some viscera
*Mesoderm: vertebral column formation and all of our bones
120
Endodermal Derivatives
Lining of GI tract
| Inner epithelium of the respiratory tract, bladder, urethra
121
Fetal period
Week 9-12: Growth of head begins to slow, site of blood formation shifts from liver to spleen, week 12: external genitalia can be distinguished,
Weeks 13-16: rapid growth, hair on scalp, eye and eye movements
Week 17-20: limbs reach proportion and there are movements, skin covered in wax(protection), lanugo (hair covering), testes begin to descend, brown fat formed.
Week 21-25: weight gain, SURFACTANT beginning to be secreted, blink startle reflex, and fingernails form. EARLIEST FOR SURVIVAL
Week 26-29: Lungs capable of breathing, CNS can control breathing/temp, white fat formed, toenails develop, Week 28 blood production moves to bone marrow
Week 30-35: pupillary light reflex, fat accumulating 8% of weight is fat
Week 36-38: 16% body weight is fat, head large but closer to proportion, testes reached scrotum.
122
Maternal Serum Screening Test
Part of Assessing Fetal Status
AFP is secreted by fetal liver, leaks into blood stream. Mom blood samples taken to look at this level and combine it with other 2nd trimester markers (ex. hCG levels) to asses possible abnormalities.
AFP = Alphafetoprotein
123
Amniocentesis
Part of Assessing Fetal Status
Aspirate amniotic fluid to karyotype it, PCR and genotyping can be done to assess genetic abnormalities.
Performed after week 14 to prevent fetal harm, fetal loss risk 1/300-500.
124
Chorionic villus Sampling
Part of Assessing Fetal Status
Sample chorion frondosum (derived from embryo), fetal DNA can be harvested without harm to fetus
Slightly higher risk then amniocentesis
Guided by ultrasound.
125
What tells the primary oocyte to go through meiosis 1?
LH. Until this point primary oocyte is suspended in prophase 1.
126
Prefertilization events
Sperm:
Capacitation, enzymes in uterine secretions remove glycoprotein coat
Find each other: Sperm tail, uterine tube cillia and signal released from oocyte and surrounding corona help sperm find egg. .
127
Fertilization events
1. Penetrate corona radiata
2. acrosome reaction (acrosome fuse with zone pep. make tunnel)
3. Penetrate Zona Pellucida
4. Fusion of oocyte and sperm cell membranes
5. Sperm enters cytoplasm, ZONA REACTION (no more sperm in cells)
6. Resumption of meiosis 2
7. Female pronucleus
8. metabolic activation of egg
9. male pronucleus
10. Nuclei merge
11. Cleavage begins.
128
Morula
16 cell (blastomere cells) inside zone pellucida
Zona pellucida stays same size while cells get smaller on division
129
Blastocyst
Day 4. Fluid filled space forms between morula cells
Trophoblasts- cells that form outer ring of blastocyst
Embryoblasts- small mass of cells, will form embryo eventually
Before implantation Zona Pell degenerates so blastocyte can implant on wall
130
What are events in first week of fertilization?
1. prefertilization
2. fertilization
3. zygote
4. Morula formation
5. Blastocyte formation
6. implantation (around day 6)
131
Trophoblast differentiation Day 8-9
Trophoblasts differentiate into:
Cytotrophoblasts: mono nucleated cells that divide, migrate into syncytiotrophoblasts, lose cell membrane
Sencytiotrophoblasts:multinucleated cells. PRODUCE hCG and eyes and enzymes that break down extra cell matrix between endometrial cells. (so embryo can go deeper).
132
Embryoblast differentiation Day 10-12
Embryoblast differentiaties to epiblast and hypoblast
form bilaminar disc
Hypoblast migrate to cytotrophoblast cells and form primitive yolk sac.
Amniotic cavity, above epiblasts
133
Trophoblastic Lacunae
Day 8-9
Holes that form in syncytium at the same time blood vessels are getting closer and closer.
Day10-12
syncytiotrophoblasts will dissolve endothelium of vessels, blood will fill trophoblastic lacunae
134
What forms the connecting stalk?
Formed by extra embryonic mesoderm
Eventually forms umbilical cord.
135
Hormonal contraceptives
estrogen and/or progestin prevent release of FSH/LH from pituitary, preventing ovulation.
Contraceptive pills- inhibit follicular development
Medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera): Decreae GnRH
from hypothalums= no FSH/LH release
IUD's- kill sperm, create fatal environment
Levonorgestrel (Plan B)- inhibit ovulation, make sperm not go
to uterus
136
Male infertility
Low sperm count: <15 mil/mL (normal: 15-300 mill/mL)
Poor sperm motility (<40%)
137
Female infertility
```
Occluded uterine tubes
Scarred ovaries
Hormonal imbalance
Anovulation
Lack or loss of implantation
```
138
Abnormal implantation
Ectopic implantation, Pouch of Douglas, tube, intestine
Decidulization (corpus luteum secreting progesterone to build up wall) will happen as long as syncytiotrophoblasts secrete hCG.
139
Function of placenta
exchange metabolic and gas products
produce hormones.
140
Nomenclature of placental development Mom v Baby
```
Babies= chorion
Mom= decidua
```
141
villi in embryology
fingerlike projections that extend towards blood supply
142
Chorion frondosum
fetal part of placenta
143
Decidua basalis
Mother part of placenta
144
Placental invasions
```
Decidua= normal
accreta= through stratum baseless
increta= into myometrium
percreta= all the way through
```
alphabetical for increasing severity
145
Placental circulation (vein v artery) ??
maybe google this, youtube?
146
Yolk sac
Primordial germ cells migrate from here.
Blood cell devo. from weeks 3-6.
Provide nutrients during establishment of uteroplacental circulation.
147
allantois
Site of blood cell devo. weeks 3-6.
Postnatally forms a fibrous cord called the urachus.
Urachus becomes median umbilical ligament in the adult.
