Mem And Cog Part 2 Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
•Meta-cognition
A
Our knowledge about the functioning of our cognitive processes more generally. Thinking about thinking
2
Q
Meta-memory:
A
Our knowledge about the functioning of our own memory
.
–Children (and some adults) grossly overestimate their cognitive abilities
3
Q
Feeling of knowing judgment:
A
Rate your confidence whether you could recognize the correct answer if you saw it.
Feeling of knowing judgements are reasonably accurate predictors of later memory performance.
4
Q
Improve memory with mnemonics
- Visual imagery mnemonics: 4 kinds
- Verbal mnemonics: 2 kinds
A
–Keyword method
–Bizarre imagery
–Method of loci
–Peg-word method
–Narrative chaining method
–Acronym-based method
5
Q
Keyword Method:
example
When is it effective? When is it not?
How does it compare with rote rehearsal?
__ image that goes with what you need to remember.
A
–“Lo siento” = “I’m sorry”
–“so low that I can see into your toe”
- Can be very effective, (more so than rote rehearsal) in the short term
- NOT EFFECTIVE in the long-term
–SURPISE! It is no better than rote rehearsal after a delay of one week or more.
visual
6
Q
Method of Loci
A mnemonic technique described by the __ __.
Can be used to learn a __ of words.
How do you do it?
A
Ancient Greeks
List
Imagine a familiar spatial environment (e.g, house).
•Visualize the new items in familiar places.
7
Q
Peg-Word Method
How to use?
A
Memorize this mnemonic: •One is a bun, •Two is a shoe, •Three is a tree, •Four is a door, •Five is a hive, •Six is sticks, •Seven is heaven, •Eight is a gate, …
For each one, imagine the things you need to remember interacting with a bun, a shoe, a tree, etc..
for example to remember hippocampus as your third item imagine a hippo camping under a tree.
8
Q
Narrative Chaining:
How to use
A
–String together a series of words into a story or long sentence
9
Q
Acronyms / Acrostics
Examples
A
–ROY G BIV
–My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles
10
Q
How to become an Expert:
There are no __
A
Shortcuts
The 10 Year Rule – It takes at least 10 years of intensive, deliberate practice to become world-level expert in anything (Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer, 1993)
11
Q
Learning is a __.
Memory is the __ of learning
A
Process
Product
12
Q
Learning (__.) &
Memory (___)
Learning results in the __ of a memory trace from a stimulus event and memory acts to __ the memory trace when cued by the environment.
A
Encoding
Retrieval
encoding
retrieve
13
Q
Improving working memory (not long term):
- c__
- using __
- don’t __-__
- don’t __
A
- chunking
- imagery
- multi-task (overloaded working memory impairs your ability to monitor and evaluate cognitive function)
- stress (stress elevates cortisol and dopamine levels in the PFC, which impairs ability to efficiently monitor and update information).
14
Q
Power law of Practice:
- Improvement is __-__.
- the more we practice something, the better we __ it.
A
non-linear
remember
15
Q
Massed vs. Distributed Practice:
-In a mirror tracing task, distributed practice led to __ learning. (aka: __sessions over __periods of time).
A
faster
shorter
longer
16
Q
Why does distributed practice produce better memories?
- encoding ___: multiples __=more varied set of possible __cues.
- overnight __: of the __ changes induced on each session.
- __ of attention: during massed practice you can’t stay __ for very long.
A
- variability: contexts, retrieval
- consolidation : synaptic
- attenuation: focused
17
Q
Generation Effect:
-Items generated by __ are remembered better.
In a study with a read condition vs. generate condition for synonyms (sea-ocean or sea-o__), the __ condition remembered the 2nd word better.
A
learners
generate
18
Q
Testing Effect:
-practicing ___ helps.
Roediger and Karpicke Study:
Students studied scientific prose and then would either restudy or take a free recall test. In the first test 5 minutes after, the __ __ group did better but for tests at 2 days and 1 week later, the __ __ group did better.
A
Retrieval
study extra
free recall
19
Q
Successful Study Skills:
- d__ and d__ practice.
- practice r__
- embrace d__
- __ processing helps.
- avoid illusions of __ (reading over and over again)
- adopt a __ mindset.
- use SQ3R Method: s__,q__,r__,r__,r__.
A
- distributed and deliberate
- retrieval
- difficulties
- elaborative
- knowing
- growth
- survey, question, read, recite, review.
20
Q
Coping with Poor Memory:
-External Cognition: use of the __ symbolic representations for __.
examples:
- impact of __ vs. __ numerals.
- __aids/__ aids.
- c__ or p__
- __-_
- r__/l__
A
external, cognition
- arabic, roman
- memory/job
- calendar or planner
- post-its
- reminders/lists
21
Q
The Neuron Doctrine:
- the neuron is the fundamental structural and functional unit of the __ __.
- Cajal proposed the possibility of synaptic plasticity: the s__ and/or __ of synaptic connections changes as a result of __.
A
nervous system
strength, number, experience
22
Q
How does the brain know which synaptic connections to strengthen?
-Donald Hebb: cells that __ together __ together.
Hebb’s Learning Rule-when an axon of cell A excites cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in __ it, some __ processes or __ change takes place in 1 or both cells so that A’s efficiency as one of the cells firing B is __.
A
fire, wire
firing
growth, metabolic
increased
23
Q
Hebb’s Learning Rule is a possible explanation for associative learning:
must __ one things with another:
- __ of a rose-__ of a rose.
- __ of a person, __ of a person.
- __ of an object, __ for this object.
Associative learning includes: __ learning, __ memory, p__, and __ conditioning.
A
associate
sight, smell
face, name
sight, word
perceptual, recognition, priming, classical
24
Q
Hebbian Learning:
cell assembly: diffuse circuits of __ neurons that develop to represent specific __.
Steps:
stimulus: seeing photo with hidden dog.
encoding: spotting dog
retrieval: looking at original photo and recognizing dog there.
A
connected, concepts
25
Distributed Memory Representations: each item (object, episode, concept) is represented as a pattern of __ over multiple __.
-Each neuron participates in the representation of __ items.
-each association is stored in the relative __ of multiple connections.
Each connection participates in the reconstruction of multiple __.
Activation
Neurons
multiple
strengths
memories
26
Benefits of Distributiveness:
-generalization to similar patterns: the network generalizes to __ patterns that are similar to __ __ patterns.
-similarity=feature __.
novel
known input
overlap
27
Benefits of Distributiveness:
-Robustness to damage:
~good, slightly degraded reconstruction from __ cues (noisy input).
~graceful degradation when units (neurons) or weights (synapses) are __.
imperfect
damaged
28
Long Term Potentiation:
-How does learning happen? Long term potentiation!: the neurological process of __ __ storage.
- High frequency stimulation increases, or __ B's response to subsequent stimulation from A.
- B will now respond more strongly to __ stimulation from A, as a result of __.
long term
potentiates
weak, experience
29
Long Term Potentiation:
-synaptic transmission becomes more __ as a result of recent __.
- connections between neurons are __ because of these changes in synapses.
- Associative LTP (and long term depression) is consistent with __ rule.
effective, activity
strengthened
Hebb's
30
5 Properties of LTP:
1) LTP is a prominent feature of the physiology of the __.
2) LTP happens very
3) LTP is very __-__.
4) LTP is s__.
5) LTP is a__.
1) hippocampus
2) quickly
3) long-lasting
4) specific
5) associative
31
How is LTP implemented in a neuron?
1.Postsynaptic receptors may become more __ to subsequent inputs
2. Presynaptic changes may increase the amount of ___ released in the future (however, how this “retrograde messenger” works is unknown)
3. __ changes to synaptic connections, such as changes in dendritic spines to increase spine surface area
responsive
neurotransmitter
structural
32
Reverberation & Consolidation
•Neural circuits process information by __ after stimulus presentation
•Reverberation leads to __ as a result of long-term potentiation (LTP).
–Reverberation: neural circuits will keep on __.
Consolidation: __ of memory trace
•Multiple sessions (distributed practice) means neural circuits will be reinforced more because there are more opportunities for __ and __.
reverberating
consolidation
firing
strengthening
reverberation and consolidation
33
Memory, Revisited
•Mental state (a memory) as pattern of __.
-In a __ memory system, a mental state is a pattern of activation over the units (neurons).
•Memory traces as __ in the connection “weights” (__)
–Patterns of activation come and go, leaving traces behind when they have passed. Traces are changes in the weights of the connections (synapses) between the units (neurons). Each memory trace is distributed over many different connections, and each connection participates in many different memory traces.
•Retrieval as __ of a prior pattern of activation
–Retrieval amounts to partial reinstatement of __ state, using a retrieval cue which is a __ of the original state.
activation
distributed
changes
synapses
reinstatement
mental
fragment
34
Failures of Omission & Commission
* Omission: details or information are __ or __.
* Commission: memories contain extra but __ details, so they do not reflect reality
ex. of commission
Missing or forgotten
incorrect
When people remembered the office with books when there were no books due to the "office schema"
35
The Forgetting Curve:
•Ebbinghaus plotted memory savings as a function of the __ interval (using cvc words).
•He hypothesized that __ (unused information fades over time) causes forgetting
Criticisms of Memory Research: __ Validity
•When was the last time you needed to learn a list of random CVCs?
•Neisser(1976): Lab studies of memory are not ecologically valid because:
–Stimuli are not __ to subjects
–Testing occurs over a relatively __ period of time
–Subject __ makes longitudinal research difficult
–Too many __ variables controlled?
retention
decay
Ecological
Relevant
short
attrition
confounding
36
Autobiographical Memory:
•Episodic and autobiographical are the __ memory system studied in different ways:
–Autobiographical occurs in __ settings
–Can involve very __ time intervals
–Researcher usually can’t __ what happened
•Autobiographical memory can be shaped by __ and ___ forces that occur during or after the event.
Same
naturalistic
long
verify
social and emotional
37
```
A Diary Study of Autobiographic Memory:
•Case History: __ Linton
–1972-78 diary
–__ memorable events per day
–Events rated for __.
```
•Monthly tests: randomly selected cards, paired them
–Estimated __ and __.
* Similar events were confused with each other because her memory was becoming __.
* No correlation with ___ ratings, but better memory for --__ events
* Testing Effect: better memory for __ events
Marigold
two
emotionality
order and dates
schematic
emotionality
distinctive
tested
38
Hierarchical Organization:
* Where were you on 6/28/2012
* People access __ rather than __-__ details
•Hierarchical model of autobiographical memories:
–L__ periods
–G__ events (“scripts”)
–S__ events
* “__” are better remembered __ Events because they are __.
* Autobiographical memories must be __-___
abstract, event-specific
lifetime
General
specific
firsts, general
distinctive
re-constructed
39
What We Remember Changes: Lifespan Memory Profile:
•Word-cueing method (have to come up with events associated with word like firetruck, pot, etc..)
•Curve shows __ findings for a 50 year old person asked to remember events over his/her life.
•Three components:
–Recency effect covers __ yrs. Stable memory before that
–Reminiscence bump: More memories from __ and __ adulthood. (15-25ish)
–Infantile amnesia: No memories from the first _ years of life, very few memories from years _ and _.
idealized
15
adolescence, young
3
4 and 5
40
Why Does Infantile Amnesia Occur? Potential Mechanisms:
•Maturation of the __ system
–H__
–P__ c__
•Reorganization of __ representations:
–Sense of __ (16-24 months)
–L__.
•Freud:
-Repression of __ memories.
nervous
hippocampus
prefrontal cortex
cortical
self
language
traumatic
41
Are Memories Forever?
* Can a memory be stored for years without distortion?•What conditions of learning lead to memories that last for years and decades?
* Methodology: Let’s stop asking __ people to remember things, and ask __ people what they remember!
studies to follow.
young
old
42
Memory for High-School Classmates:
* 400 people, 17-74yrs
* Classmate photos and names from high-school yearbooks
* __ declined but __ was consistent
* __ recognition slightly better than __ recognition
recall
recognition
Face
name
43
Memory for Spanish:
* __ better than __.
* Most forgetting happened after the first _ years of learning
Recognition, recall
6
44
Information resides in a ___: a bedrock of knowledge __ by interference or the passage of time
•How does information get into it?
–Over-learning: practice on a task __ criterion or mastery
–__ practice
permastore
unaffected
after
distributed
45
Retention of College Math:
* Subjects took an Algebra II test (n=1,700, 19-84 years old)
* Last class was up to 74 years earlier; some had calculus, others not
•Bahrick took into account factors including:
–Amount of math __.
–Amount of math usage since training (__)
–Math g__
–Time since training (__ interval)
* Excellent retention for those who used algebra in the years __ following the course (__)
* Even those who report no rehearsal show __% retention after 50 years if they had _ or more courses (__)
training
rehearsal
grades
retention
immediately
rehearsal
90%
3
rehearsal
46
Why Take Advanced Courses?
•So that you remember for life the material from your __ courses!
* In the study of Bahrick & Hall (1991), the Calculus course serves as __ for the Algebra course.
* __-___-___ algebra practice had similar effect, especially if it occurred not long after taking the Algebra course.
introductory
practice
on-the-job
47
Distributed Practice: Foreign-Language Vocabulary
(Bahrick Spacing Effect)
•Learn 300 English-French pairs
•50 word pairs at each of 6 conditions (3 schedules X 2 learning sessions)
–__ or __ learning sessions, each carried to mastery
–Schedules differed in spacing of training (_, __, __ days)
–Once the English meaning was correctly recalled the French word was removed from the list (for that session). Therefore words were all recalled once but practiced a varying number of times.
•Learning was faster at __ day spacing, slowest at __.
-__ practice sessions always better
Distributed Practice Makes Perfect:
•Retention was tested after 1,2,3,4,5 years
•Retention after 5 yrs (50%)
–Retention best with :
•Distributed (__ day) practice
•__ practice (26 vs 13)
•Generally true that later recall is better when learning takes __.
•Spacing effect: __ periods of time between study sessions leads to longer __ intervals
13 or 26
14, 28, 56 days
14
56
more
56
More
longer
longer
retention
48
Distributed vs. Massed Practice:
* __ as much studying needed to learn foreign vocabulary words if learning is spaced out over a longer period of time!
* __ spacing between study sessions lead to longer __ intervals!
•WHY? HOW?
–__ variability
–R___ & c__
–__ of attention
half
greater
retention
encoding
reverberation and consolidation
attenuation
49
Flashbulb Memories:
•Memory for one’s __ experience at the time of an __ __ event
```
•What were you doing when you saw or heard about:
–Kennedy assassination
–Columbine
–Shuttle Columbia
–Princess Diana’s death
–9/11/01 attack on WTC
```
•Do memories formed when strong emotions exist have more detail? More durability? More accuracy?
-See __ Print Hypothesis!
personal
emotionally stimulating
now
50
•Now Print Hypothesis (Brown & Kulik, 1977):
–Strong emotions trigger a special ___ mechanism that produces highly __ and __ memory
•Measured memory for __ (location, informant, activity) in which subjects remembered “the circumstances in which they first heard about ...”–John Kennedy–Martin Luther King–Malcolm X –........6 other famous people–+ 1 personal event
•Subjects’ memory was called ‘___’ if they remembered circumstances & details about their location, activity, affect, aftermath
–The more emotionally significant the event, the more __ the memory
–Personal relevance: African Americans had more vivid and detailed flashbulb memories for the assassination of __ civil rights leaders than did __.
•However, __ of subjects’ memories could not be verified
•B&K concluded that FB memory used a unique physiological mechanism (Now Print!)
–Subsequent evidence did __ support Now Print! hypothesis.
physiological
durable and accurate
context
flashbulb
vivid
black, whites
accuracy
not
51
Flashbulb Memories Do NOT Use a Special Memory Mechanism (aka __ __ hypothesis is false).
* Emotional experiences are remembered like others that we __ to and __.
* More exposure to __ discussion of events (Neisser, 1982)
* Memories for unique dramatic events are more __; less interference from memories of __ memories.(McCloskey, Wible, & Cohen, 1986)
* Memory for dramatic events may be ___ from __ information about disasters (McCloskey, Wible, and Cohen, 1986)
now print
attend, rehearse
public
distinctive
similar
reconstructed, schematic
52
Recognition Memory for Large Amounts of Material:
- People were given index cards with some __ frequency words and some __ frequency words.
- Told to study for as long as they want. (usually an hour)
- shepard presented them with 1 seen card and 1 they hadn't to test __.
- for 540 words, __% were correctly __.
- Shepard repeated this with sentences and got the __ %.
Recognition tests yield __-__ performance on large amounts of information.
high, low
recognition
86%
recognized
same
above-chance
53
The Word Frequency Effect:
* High-frequency words (e.g., “market”) are __ to recall but __ to recognize
* Low-frequency words (e.g., “sextant”) are __ to recall but __ to recognize
easier, harder
harder, easier
54
The Picture Superiority Effect:
* Picture superiority: Memory for __ is superior than memory for __, all else being equal.
* Recognition superiority: __ tests are easier than __ tests, all else being equal.
pictures, words
recognition, recall
55
Theories of Forgetting
•Source(s) of forgetting:
–Decay: __ from memory as time passes
–Retrieval difficulty: memory __, but not __.
•Encoding-retrieval mismatch: ph__, ps___, cognitive __.
•I__.
•All may contribute to forgetting!
fade
available, accessible
physical, psychological, cognitive context
interference
56
Decay Hypothesis:
* Memory traces __ as time passes.
* Due to some __-___ mechanism, such as deterioration of synapses or neurons.
* Very __ to test
degrade
non-psychological
hard
57
Encoding-Retrieval (Mis)match:
* Better recall when the test context __ the study context
* The context provides additional __ that help retrieval
* The context-dependent effect goes away if __ is tested rather than recall.
matched
cues
recognition
58
Decay vs Interference Theories:
•Decay as a result of __. (Thorndike, 1911)
–Memories __ away with time, just like muscles weaken when not exercised.
•Interference between associations due to __ overload
–Retroactive interference (RI) -- __ learned material disrupts the retention and retrieval of __ learned material
–Proactive interference (PI) -- __ learned material makes it more difficult to learn, retain, and/or retrieve __ material
disuse
fade
cue
newly, previously
previously, new
59
Cue Overload & Forgetting:
* __ items become associated with a __ retrieval cue
* Similar items get __ & causes retrieval problems
* Response __ causes interference
ex: learning the word for man in spanish and french but the french becomes stronger so that when you visit Spain you can't remember the Spanish word for man.
multiple, single
activated
competition
60
Experimental Procedure for Studying Retroactive Interference (RI):
-need a __ group
1) interference group: learns spanish 100%, learns french 100%, has a retention interval, recalls spanish (40% recall as opposed to 100%)
2) control group: learns spanish 100%, learns japanese 100%, has a retention interval, recalls spanish (90% recall as opposed to 100%)
the two group differ only in __ learning at time 2. (the 2nd subject they are learning).
-the performance drop (control-experimental) measured __ interference.
What’s an adequate control condition? Sleep? See Jenkins & Dallenback (1924)
•Sleeping prevented RI because no __ material was encountered.
control
interpolated
retroactive
new
61
Factors That Affect Retroactive Interference:
- __ of learning of original material (Spanish in this case). More original learning means __ interference.
- __ of learning of interpolated material (French in this case). More interpolated learning, __ interference.
- __ relation between original material (Spanish) and interpolated material (French). Original and interpolated learning close in time, __ interference.
- Recency of __ learning (french). If it was more recently, __ interference.
- Similarity of original learning and interpolated material (spanish-french vs. spanish-japnese). More similarity, __ interference.
degree, less
degree, more
temporal
more
recency
more
more
62
Release from Proactive Interference:
•Proactive interference (PI) is modulated by __.
* Less PI after a switch to a __ word category (e.g., furniture to flower) or aspect (e.g., heavy to light).
* Release not found when switching from __ to __.
similarity
novel
nouns to adjectives.
63
Intentional (Directed) Forgetting:
•When we __ try to forget...
* Retrieval inhibition –Retrieval of information in memory is __.
* H__& D___ involved in inhibiting responses (an __ function)
intentionally
suppressed
hippocampus
DLPFC
executive
64
Key Idea: Retrieval by Reconstruction
•Remembering is an active process of __.
.•Memories are reconstructed on the basis of partial __ and the __ knowledge in the __ between neurons.
reconstruction
cues
latent
connections
65
Schemas Organize Our Knowledge and Our Memories:
- Read people stories, one had snippet "if the balloons popped, the sounds wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor."
- some saw a picture
- % recall, those who saw picture had better __ of story.
- picture after story didn't help.
encoding
66
Schematization of Memories:
* Subjects asked to wait in office for 35 sec before being taken to another location
* Unexpected memory test for office contents
* Recall biased by ‘office stereotype’
–29/30 desk/chair
–8/30 bulletin board
–9/30 books (FALSE)
•Memory based on __ +__.
schema + exceptions
67
Reconstructive Memory:
The traces are not simply “__” or “__” in recall; instead, the stored __ are used as information to support a new construction. It is as if the bone fragments used by the paleontologist did not appear in the model he builds at all -- as indeed they need not, if it is to represent a fully fleshed-out, skin-covered dinosaur. The bones can be thought of, somewhat loosely, as remnants of the structure which created and supported the original dinosaur, and thus as sources of information about how to reconstruct it.
revived, reactivated
fragments
68
Our Self-Concept Affects Our Autobiographical Memories:
* Our self-concept is our view of __.
* It acts as a lens (a __!) through which we view the world.
* Our self concept also affects our __ of past events in our lives.
* We constantly __ our memories to fit the __ we hold about ourselves.
ourselves
schema
memories
revise
beliefs
69
•Self-reference effect:
information bearing on the self is processed more __ and remembered __.
-people could best recall words when they thought about if it __ them.
deeply
better
described
70
Memory distorts to fit __-__
•People tend to revise their narratives about their lives to fit their self-concept
–Pat Robertson ex:
–Students’ retroactive distortions of how they used to be (Conway & Ross, 1984)
–Study of menstrual periods (Ross, 1989)
explain:
self-concept
("God told me to stay out of politics" vs. "God told me to get into politics" on separate occasions).
Beliefs Bias Recall:
•Initial survey: some women believe their periods were unpleasant; others believe their periods were mild.
* Subjects recorded their feelings for a couple of periods in a diary & rated their periods after one more month
* Women who believed their periods were unpleasant remembered them as worse than rated in their diary
* Women who thought their periods were mild remembered them as milder than rated in their diary
71
A Case Study: John Dean:
* John Dean’s testimony to Congress about __ did not match recordings of the conversations "I received a call requesting me to come to the President’s Oval Office. When I arrived at the Oval Office I found Haldeman and the President. The president asked me to sit down."
* Used a __ for meetings. Remembered __.
* Intentional deception __; testimony accurate at the gist level
watergate
script
gist
unlikely
72
John Dean’s Memory Self-editing autobiographical memory
* In other cases Dean’s memory was in error and reflected the way in which he wanted to view __.
* He recalled Nixon strongly praising him for doing a good job when Nixon hadn’t. “The president told me I had done a good job and he appreciated how difficult a task it had been...”
* Our autobiographical memories may become altered by our __ needs for esteem, self respect, and social approval.
himself
social
73
* Self-Esteem: How __ someone evaluates himself or herself.
* Self-esteem in the US is unrealistically __:–__% of people say they are “above average drivers”–__% of high school students claim they are above average in leadership ability
favorably
high
90, 70
74
Positive Illusions (Self-Deception):
•Normal, healthy people __ their good qualities & underestimatetheir faults
•People overestimate their perceived __ over events
–People are overly __ in their estimates of good things happening (or avoiding bad things)
overestimate
control
optimistic
75
Self-Deception Strategies:
1. Selection of __ group
2. Comparison and definition of ‘__’ traits
3. Self-serving bias: interpret events to take credit for __ but deny __ for failure
4. Skepticism of __ feedback
comparison (who you compare yourself to)
good
success, blame
negative
76
•Junk mail theory of self-deception:
People __ what events they attend to and try to not attend to ‘__ news’
–People remember __ things better than __ things (because of __)
–People try to not dwell on __
–People __ “junk mail” (e.g. bad news) &__ it in the trash (do not pay attention to it)
control
bad
good, bad
rehearsal
failures
recognize
throw
77
Self-Esteem and Positive Illusions:
•Depression is linked to __ self-esteem
* Normal (non-depressed) people __ successes & failures __ than depressed people
* Depressed people are more accurate at estimating how much __ they have over events
low
distort, more
control
78
Cognitive Theory of Depression:
* Links the development of depression to the adoption __ in life of a __ biased or distorted way of thinking
* Habitual negative thinking and cognitive distortions
early
negatively
79
The Cognitive Triad of Depression
•Negative view of __:Perceiving oneself as worthless, deficient, inadequate, unlovable, and lacking the skills necessary to achieve happiness.
* Negative view of the __ at __:Perceiving the environment as imposing excessive demands and/or presenting obstacles that are impossible to overcome, leading to continual failure and loss.
* Negative view of the __:Perceiving the future as hopeless and believing that one is powerless to change things for the better. One expects of the future only continuing failure and unrelenting misery and hardship.
oneself
world at large
future
80
Research Evidence on Cognitions and Depression:
* Depressed patients tend to show more __ or __ thinking than non-depressed controls
* Cause vs. effect? Does the __ cause the dysfunctional thinking, or does the __ thinking cause depression?
* Distorted thinking ends to occur __. Automatic thoughts are likely to be accepted as __.
distorted or dysfunctional
depression
dysfunctional
automatically
fact
81
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy:
* Based on evidence that __ distortions play a key role in the development of depression.
* Helps people __ and __ dysfunctional thought patterns.
* Impressive results in treating major __ and reducing risks of recurrent __.
* Perhaps the most __ used psychological treatment for depression.
cognitive
recognize, correct
depression
episodes
widely
82
Two Conceptions of Memory:
__ Traces: Stored & Retrieved
vs.
(Re)constructive __
Memory
processing
83
(Re)constructive Processing:
Key Idea: Retrieval by Reconstruction
* Remembering is an active process of __.
* Memories are reconstructed on the basis of __ cues and the __ knowledge in the connections between neurons.
reconstruction
partial
latent
84
Eyewitness Testimony Can Be In Error:
* Eyewitness sees something __ just once and must remember it much later.
* Father Pagano (1979)–__ witnesses identified him as armed robber.–Another man confessed halfway through the trial!
complex
seven
85
Properties of Eyewitness Testimony:
1. __. Few things are as persuasive to jurors as a confident eyewitness pointing a finger and saying under oath: “This is the person who did this to me!”
2. __. Eyewitness identification was crucial in __% of the cases of wrongful conviction reversed by subsequent DNA evidence
Persuasive
unreliable
75
86
Confidence and Memory:
* Jurors are influenced by a witness’s __ testimony
* However, confident identifications are NOT NECESSARILY more __!
* Factors other than __ of the event influence witness’s confidence (Wells)
* A statistical correlation exists between __ and __, but __ alone cannot prove the truth of any single recollection.
* Independent ___ is needed.
confident
accurate
memory
accuracy and confidence
confidence
corroboration
87
Not All Honest Testimonies Correspond to the Facts:
•Jury members often reason by __:
–“If the witness is not __, then they must be telling the __.”
•Assumes only 2 possible alternatives:
–The witness remembers something because it __, more or less as described.
–OR: The witness is deliberately __.
•However, there is a third alternative:
–The witness can be making an honest __.
–In psychology, this is known as “__”
elimination
lying, truth
happened
lying
mistake
confabulation
88
Eyewitness Memories Must Be Protected, Like Crime Scenes:
•The eyewitness’s task is hard, and memory is imperfect
•To prevent false identification, line-ups:
–Must be administered by a __ police officer & NOT the __ on the case.
–The witness must be informed clearly and repeatedly that the correct answer may be that “The perpetrator is __ of these people.”
–Sequential, not simultaneous presentation, so people are compared to the __ and not __ __.
trained
detective
none
memory
each other
89
Key Idea: Memory is Imperfect:
* Memory is not like a tape recorder. It is susceptible to __ and ___.
* This has important implications for eyewitness testimony.
* Eyewitness memories must be __, just like crime scenes are protected.
suggestion, malleable
protected
90
Causes of Eyewitness Errors & False Memories:
–Source amnesia (m__)
–M__ information
misattribution
misleading
91
•Misattribution: A recollection or idea is attributed to the __ source.
–Ex: You “remember” your first day in kindergarten when your memory is really based on what your __ told you.
–Victim’s recollection of her attacker was actually a person she saw earlier in the day on __ (she forgot that she saw that face on __)
•__ amnesia
wrong
mother
television, television
Source
92
Misleading Information: Loftus and Palmer (1974) Study:
* Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars, then interviewed
* Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
* Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they [ contacted bumped collided ] each other?
•Speed estimates depended on the __ of the question.
•When Ss were given “smashed,”__% remembered broken glass; only __% did in the “bumped” group. In fact, there was no broken glass
.•Loftus & Zani (1975): Ss are more likely to say yes to
–“Did you see __ broken headlight?”than to
–“Did you see __ broken headlight?”
•Leading questions can __ memory.
phrasing
33%
10%
the
a
contaminate
93
False Memories:
•"Memories" for events that never __.
Wade et al. (2002), A picture is worth a thousand lies.
-Photoshopped photo of kid with parent in hot air balloon and when college students were asked what they remembered about the event, a surprising amount could __ it.
-
happened
remember
94
Creating a False Memory:
•Later __ and __ can change memory for an event (Loftus & Palmer)
•Loftus & Pickrell (1995) tried to create an entire memory for something that never happened
–College students identified an older relative who was contacted and interviewed to obtain descriptions of 3 __ childhood experiences that were not traumatic or ‘family lore’
–Older relative provided plausible framework for a fourth childhood experience involving a trip to a shopping mall and a __ incident added by the experimenters in which the participant is said to get lost in the shopping mall.
```
•Each S given a booklet with 4 short stories (3 true, 1 false) from their own childhood, and asked to remember as many details as they could.
•The false story always included
–Lost in a mall or large store
–Lost for an extended period
–Found and helped by an elderly woman
–Reunited with family
```
•After returning the booklet each S was interviewed twice, 2 and 4 weeks later and were asked to remember the events and to rate the clarity of their memories
- true events: __% remembered
- fasle events: __% "remembered"
Subjects rated clarity for __ events higher and described in more detail.
Did a similar study with preschool children
-obtained very high __ memory rates (__%) often with great detail
information and discussion
actual
fictitious
68
25
true
false
58%
95
Creating False Memories The “Mousetrap Experiment”
•Children asked about an event when they had “a finger caught in a mousetrap and had to go the hospital” for __ consecutive weeks
–Did it hurt? Who took you? Where is the mousetrap?•Preschool kids genuinely come to believe their __-__ stories
• __% told detailed false narratives
10
made-up
58
96
Conditions for False Memories Source Monitoring Framework:
Subject must:
1.Accept the __ event as __.
2.Create __ for the event, such as an __ & __.
3.Wrongly attribute their memory to __ experience rather than to an image they created
suggested, plausible
context
image & narrative
personal
97
The “Memory Wars”:
•Repressed memories of early childhood abuse can be __ –OR–
•Memories of abuse are generally __
•Note: Nobody claims that all memories of traumatic experience are false. The issue is focused on memories for __ events that supposedly __ for years
•The issues:
–Can a “memory” be suggested and then remembered as true?
–Can a memory be forgotten (or “repressed”) and then remembered?
–Is there a reliable method to discriminate between genuine memories and implanted memories?
recovered
false
unverified
disappeared
98
Franklin Case:
•__ Franklin has a flashback in 1989.
•She remembered seeing her father kill an 8-year-old playmate of hers in 1969.
•She has had __ memory of the event during the intervening 20 years.
•Her memory is rich in detail. She testifies as an eyewitness
•George Franklin is tried and convicted by a jury who found Eileen’s memory convincing.
•George Franklin serves 6 years in jail.
•The case was overturned in 1996 because the original judge had refused to let the defense introduce newspaper articles about the murder.
•Janice Franklin testified that she and her sister Eileen had been __ before their trial to “enhance” their memories.
•Eileen had claimed that her father had committed two other murders but investigators have been unable to link him to them.
•DNA and semen tests confirmed George Franklin’s __.
Eileen
no
hypnotized
innocence
99
Suggestibility of Memory:
•False memories can be inadvertently created:
–__ questioning
–__, suggestive questions
–__ amnesia / m__
repeated
leading
source/misattribution
100
Recovered (Repressed) Memories:
•However ... “most leaders in the field agree that although it is a __ occurrence, a memory of early childhood abuse that has been __ later can be __ later”
– APA
rare
forgotten
remembered
101
Research on Recovered Memories:
* __ research on childhood sexual abuse and recovery of repressed memory is difficult
* Because false memories can be implanted relatively easily, ___ evidence is necessary to convict a person of an alleged crime (APA guidelines, 1995)
Scientific
corroborative
102
The “Memory Wars”
•The issues:
–Can a “memory” be suggested and then remembered as true? __.
–Can a memory be forgotten (or “repressed”) and then remembered? __. (__)
–Is there a reliable method to discriminate between genuine memories and implanted memories? __!
•__ __ is needed.
yes
yes (rare)
no
independent corroboration
103
Putting it all together•
A single memory is either true or false &it may be __ to tell which.
•It is possible that both repression and false-memory syndrome occur
–False memory demonstrated __.
–Repression- a few __ case histories exist
•Repetition produces __ memory
–1 time events are at __.
–1 time events are influenced by experience (__ or __)
•When recalling it is difficult to separate information by __.
–1 time events can be distorted by __ amnesia
•Confidence is determined by factors that don’t affect the __ of a memory
–A person may be confident in their memory & be __!
impossible
experimentally
convincing
good
disadvantage
schemas or interference
source
source
content
wrong
104
Learning Occurs Before Birth:
•__ weeks (_ mos) gestation: fetus can start to perceive and learn about __.
•Fetuses learn and habituate to auditory stimuli at ~_-_ weeks
–Habituation: reduced responding to a __ __.
25, 7.
sounds
34~36
repeated stimulus.
105
Hepper & Shahidullah:
- Presented sounds to mothers stomach
- fetuses respond during first few trials, but by __ they stopped responding.
- changed sound and fetuses responded again, but again stopped eventually. (they __)
- they then replayed the first sound and they all habituated by _ trials (remembered hearing it).
13
habituated
8
106
Prenatal Learning Persists after Birth:
•Prenatal infants can learn & the learned information affects behavior after birth•
Fetuses: The Cat in the Hat read 2X/day for ~ 6 weeks
•Tested 2-3 days after birth
•The familiar story __ a sucking pattern
–Stimulus -> Response -> Outcome
–S (artificial nipple) -> R (long pause before sucking burst) ->O (familiar story)
–S (artificial nipple) -> R (short pause before sucking burst) ->O (novel story)
* Babies showed __ conditioning and ability to discriminate the __ and __ between the two stories
* Skills necessary for __ learning
reinforced
operant
rhythm and pitch
language
107
Conditioning & Skill Learning in Young Children:
•__ and __ maturity constrain learning
–You can’t learn to ride a bicycle, if you can’t lift your head
•Infants show __ conditioning
–S__ -> R__ -> O__
– _mos: learn to kick to see a mobile move
–__-sensitive, just like adults
physical, cognitive
operant
stimulus ->response->outcome
2
context
108
Classical Conditioning:
•Infants show classical conditioning
–CS=tone–US=air puff–CR=eye blink
(blinking at the __).
•Ability to learn under difficult conditions changes with __.
tone
development
109
Episodic Memory in Children:
•Observational learning is based on __ memory
•Elicited imitation: method to test episodic memory in __-__ infants
•Episodic memory for puppet play in 10- & 56-month olds. –Compared to controls, those who played with puppets at 10-months:
–Showed __ interest and ability to use puppets at 14-months
–Could not __ the event from when they were 10 months, but still showed __ interest & ability at 56-months (Myers, Perris & Speaker, 1994)
episodic
pre-verbal
more
recall
more
110
Episodic Memory in Children:
•Some evidence suggests that __ memory develops more slowly than __ memory
–Children learned 10 facts from a human or puppet
–6- & 8-year-olds remember the __ AND __ context
–4-year olds can learn __ information, but couldn’t reliably remember episodic __.
•Young children may display episodic memory, but be unable to __ it (Hayne & Imuta, 2011)
episodic
semantic
fact, episodic
semantic, context
verbalize
111
Semantic Memory in Children:
•Top-down processing helps __ & __.
•Memory & metamemory improves as children increase their __ base.
–Encoding: organization (__) help children memorize lists (1st, 3rd, 5th grade)
–3rd & 5th graders __ state that categories help them remember, but 1st graders __ __.
encoding, retrieval
knowledge
categories
can
can not
112
Working Memory in Children & Adolescents:
•Working memory is __ to develop.
•Digit span __ between the ages of 2 & 12
–5-6 year olds: _-_ digit span
–9-10 year olds: _-_ digit span
–14-15 year olds: adult digit span (_)
•Executive function matures in __ adulthood
slow
triples
3-4
5-6
7
early
113
Working Memory in Children:
What increases working memory capacity?
1. Longer digit spans reflect more __ & __ with numbers.
2. Faster rehearsal rate (increasing __ speed)
3. Development of cognitive __ reduces __ to improve memory (Harnishfeger & Pope, 1996)
experience and familiarity
processing
inhibition
distractions
114
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood:
__ years old is peak of cognitive abilities.
```
Performance on memory tasks in younger and older people:
Memory Declines
•Lab __
•__ situations
•C__ information
•S__ deficits
```
```
Age Advantages
–Longer lasting s__ memory
–V__ increases.
–Remote memories from __
–A__ in expert typists, athletes and professionals
```
No Difference
–I__ memory tasks
–Meta-__
–Maintenance of __ acquired skills
20
tests
ecological
contextual
speed
sensory
vocabulary
childhood
anticipation
implicit
memory
previously
115
Working Memory in Adults:
•Average digit span drops from 7 to _ in elderly adults (__+)
–Like children, __ vary!
–Can be difficult to differentiate between ‘cognitive __’ vs. d__ or i__
•Working memory declines relatively early:
–Reductions in digit span can be observed as early as _-_ years of age for more difficult conditions (__-__)
6
60
individuals
slowing vs. disease or illness
30-40
multitasking
116
Classical Conditioning
•Older age does not prevent learning, but it makes learning __.
–Older adults take _X as long to learn an eyeblink response as younger adults
–__-__ years: Conditioning to eyeblink starts to take more trials
slower
2 times
40-50
117
Skill Learning & Maintenance:
•__ memory holds up better than __ memory
•Over age __, learning a new skill becomes more difficult: More t__, s__, and more __.
•However, highly practiced skills are __ and some may show __ (chess, bridge)
–Greater __ and ability to __ can compensate for declining physical abilities
implicit, explicit
60
trials, slower, and more errors
maintained
improvement
knowledge, anticipate
118
Episodic & Semantic Memory:
•Existing __ memories survive, but acquiring new memories (__ or __) becomes more difficult
•Encoding is more difficult in older adults:
–Slower presentation rates __ memory
–Better performance for familiar domains (__-__ effects)
•Retrieval is more difficult in older adults:
–Older people have more __-__-__-__ experiences, failure to retrieve a __ word or fact, than younger people (Burke, 1991)
declarative
episodic or semantic
improve
top-down
tip-of-the-tongue
known
119
Selective Breeding:
-__ ability can be selectively bred in rats
- breaded maze bright rate together and maze dull together and they had the same types of babies.
- BDNF Gene and LTP: _ _ _ allele produces more effective version of BNDF protein than _ _ _ allele.
- 5-HT2AR Gene and Serotonin receptors: _ _ _ allele constructs more efficient serotonin receptors than _ _ _ allele.
cognitive
VAL, MET
HIS, TYR
120
Epigenetics:
•Genes must be activated or ‘expressed’ to take __.
•Epigenetics: modifies gene __ without modifying the genes __. Example:
–Methylation: a methyl group of atoms attaches to a gene to (usually) __ its activity
–Diet, environment, stress
–Stress may reduce BDNF activation (and reduce LTP)
•Epigenetic changes can be __ from parent to child
effect
activation, themselves
inhibit
passed
121
Influence of Environment:
•Hebb’s “home rats” __ lab rats
•Rats in enriched environment:
–Show better __ learning &
–Have cortical neurons with __ and __ dendrites than rats kept in lab housing
•__ environment better for (human) children and adults
outperformed
maze
more and longer
enriched
122
Neurons & Synapses in the Developing Brain:
•Cell growth in the brain is not __. Growth contributes to cognitive __. Examples:
–Neurogenesis (neuronal __): Purkinje cells in the cerebellum form early during gestation -> early __ conditioning
–Working memory matures slowly because the prefrontal cortex is not fully __ until early adulthood
–Increase in __ in prefrontal cortex in adolescence (increased impulsivity & risk taking)
•Synaptogenesis: Creation of __ synapses
–High rates of synaptogenesis in PFC until _ years of age
* Apoptosis: natural cell __
* Neurons & synapses created and __ to direct __ (and reflect sensitive periods)
uniform
development
birth, classical
myelinated
dopamine
new, 6
death
pruned
development
123
Neurons & Synapses in the Aging Brain
•The brain starts to shrink in early adulthood
•Synaptic stability: Fewer __ & less effective __ connections may partially explain declines in working memory &conditioning
–Instability of LTP in rats
neurons
| synaptic
124
Gender Differences (On Average):
* Male brains:
* Larger and heavier
* Better __ navigation than females? (N,S,E,W)
* Female brains:
* Smaller and lighter
* Better e__, v__memory, w__ memory?
spatial
episodic, verbal, working
125
Effects of Sex Hormones on Adult Behavior:
•Testosterone can improve __ learning
–Male rats __ female rats on learning to swim to an escape platform, when they must remember __ the platform is.
•Estrogen may improve __ learning
–Females generally __ males on __ learning and __ learning tasks that require learning about __ or __.
•Relationship between estrogen & testosterone is __.
–Estrogen stimulates __ growth and _ _ _ in rats
–Testosterone __ estrogen function, but when testosterone levels are high, some testosterone may be converted to __.
spatial
outperform
where
```
verbal
outperform
list
landmark
words or objects.
```
complex
neuronal
LTP
inhibits
estrogen
126
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD):
•Irreversible, progressive cognitive decline due to accumulating brain __.
pathology
127
Alzheimer's Disease Progression:
•Mild: Memory __ & cognitive difficulties
–Wandering and getting __, trouble handling __ and paying bills, repeated questions, slow to do normal __ tasks, p__ and b__ changes
•Moderate: Damage occurs in areas of the brain that control l__, r__, s__ processing & c__ thought.
–Difficulty __ family and friends. Unable to learn __ things, carry out __ tasks such as getting dressed, or cope with new __. H__, delusions, paranoia, and impulsive behavior may occur
•Severe: Brain __ shrinks significantly.
–Patients are unable to __ and are completely __ on others for care
```
loss
lost
money
daily
personality and behavior
```
```
language, reasoning, sensory processing, and conscious thought.
recognizing
new
multistep
situations
hallucinations
```
tissue
communicate
dependent
128
Two Kinds of Pathology cause Alzheimers:
1. Tangles:
–Protein called tau keeps microtubules (transport system) straight. In areas where tangles form, tau __ into strands called tangles
–Microtubule destruction causes cell __
–Tangles accumulate first in the __ & __ __ lobe and causes __ early in the disease
2. Beta-amyloid plaques:
•Beta-amyloid is a fragment of a __ snipped from a protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP). In a healthy brain, these fragments __ down and are removed, but in AD the fragments __ to form hard, insoluble plaques
•Plaques are __ to nearby neurons
•Immune system cells trigger __.
•Block __to__ signaling at synapses
•Evenly distributed throughout the __ cortex
•__ and __ memory impairments occur before w__ memory, l__, and j___.
```
collapses
death
hippocampus
medial temporal
shrinkage
```
```
protein
break
accumulate
toxic
inflamation
cell to cell
cerebral
episodic and semantic
working, language, and judgment
```
129
Signs and Symptoms
•Long ___ phase
•Early symptoms may include:
–Mild __ Impairment (MCI)
- People have __ memory problems than normal for their age, but their symptoms do not interfere with their __ lives.
–Episodic memory disruptions
–Decline in other cognitive abilities (ex. word-finding, vision-spatial issues, impaired reasoning and judgment).
presymptomatic
cognitive
more
everyday
130
Prevention
•D__ and physical e__
–High correlation between Type-II __ and AD
–Correlation between AD & LDL cholesterol, High Blood Pressure
•Mental activity
–High ___ attainment/high ___ status
–Cognitive reserve: cognitively active people start at a __ level of functioning, so they have to lose __ function to impact Activities of Daily Living (ADL)
–Mental __ may combat AD
diet, exercise
diabetes
educational/occupational
higher
more
activity
131
What is Imagery?
•A kind of __ experience that feels as if we are experiencing a __ object or sound, but without the object or sound __ there
–V__, a__, g__, o__, h__ & m__
–Perception in the absence of a __ stimulus
conscious
perceptual
being
visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, haptic, and motor
physical
132
A Brief History
•Sir Francis __ (1883) studied __ experiences of imagery
•Wilhelm Wundt used __ to study imagery (late-1800s)
–S__
–Imageless thought controversy: some aspects of thinking have no __ properties but still in consciousness as a kind of __ awareness
Galton
subjective
introspection
structuralism
sensory
vague
133
Behaviorism and Imagery:
Prove to me...that you have auditory images, visual images, or any other kind of disembodied processes. So far I have only your unverified and unsupported word that you have them.-- who said this?
John B Watson
134
Resurgence of Imagery
•Ebbinghaus tried to avoid meaningful associations in CVC __ syllables
•However, some CVCs suggest a __–XIT (excite) MOV (movie)
•CVCs with “__” are easier to remember than CVCs with less __–Ex. JOK (easier) vs. XUD (harder)
nonsense
meaning
meaningfulness
meaning
135
Resurgence of Imagery:
Verbal Mediators
* Meaningful CVCs (and words) have more ___ that can be used as __ links. These __ between the CVC and actual word are __.
* Example: Subjects who memorized 12 lists of words using narrative chaining remembered more words; the __ was a verbal mediator (Bowers and Clark, 1969).
associations
retrieval
associations
mediators
story
136
Resurgence of Imagery:Visual Mediators?
* Were Bowers & Clark’s results partially due to __? Maybe visual imagery can serve as a __ too?
* Why are visual imagery mnemonics effective? (at least in the shortterm)–Keyword method–Method of loci–Peg word method
imagery
| mediator
137
Dual Coding Theory (Paivio):
•Concrete words are __ to recall because they can be encoded in two ways: __ associations AND __.
•Abstract words (low concreteness) are hard to __, so they can only be encoded one way: __ associations
easier
verbal associations and imagery.
imagine
verbal
138
Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution
•___ is an indirect indicator of how imaginable a word is. But how to __ ‘imaginable-ness’?
•Book, agreement, plague, personality, emotion
•1 = not easy to imagine / 7 = highly imaginable
* Ratings allowed Paivio to establish an __ basis for the study of imagery
* Made imagery ‘__’ topic of study
concreteness
measure
objective
respectable
139
Paivio’s Influence
•Evidence for imagery in memory:
–Dual-__ hypothesis
•Evidence for imagery in cognition:
–Paivio (1975) suggested that we use __ &__ imagery codes when we think.
•Paved the way for more __ measures of imagery, like mental __ (Shepard)
coding
verbal and visual
objective
rotation
140
Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution:
-2 figures on screen, had to respond whether they were the same of different as fast as possible
•The __ the angle of rotation, the __ the response time.
•Linear increase: mental __ occurs at a __ rate of speed
–__ deg. / sec
•Rotating the stimulus is a __ action
larger
longer
rotation
constant
60 degrees
mental
141
Functions of Imagery:
•L__
•R__
•M__
Learning
Reasoning
Memory
142
Functions of Imagery:
Learning:
•__ imagery and mental practice (__ about moving but not actually moving).
- Those who used motor imagery did __ in the motor task.
- Used in cognitive behavioral therapy of __ disorders
Motor
thinking
better
anxiety
143
Functions of Imagery:
Reasoning:
•__ comparisons–John is smarter than Jim, Bill is not smarter than Jim
–Who is smartest?
* Mental __
* T__ and c__
Transitive
maps
time and calendars
144
Functions of Imagery:
Memory:
1. __ memory–Some merit in the __-coding hypothesis
2. P__ memory
improve
dual
perceptual
145
The Quasi Picture View
•How similar is imagery to perception?
–Images -> __ processing
–Objects ->__ processing
* In imagery, the activation comes from a __ representation of an object or scene stored in memory instead of a __ stimulus
* Mental rotation experiments provide evidence that imagery is __ perception
mental
perceptual
mental
physical
like
146
The Quasi-Picture View
* Images are __ of __ experiences
* Constructed out of the __ information and processed using __ parts of the cognitive system
•We act like our mental images are __ entities
–Scanning
–Acuity (__in and __out)
analogues, perceptual
same, similar
physical
zoom, zoom
147
Five Principles: Images & percepts are functionally analogous
1. Images are perceptually __ to pictures:
•Subjects either:
–__ a block letter printed on a grid
–__ a block letter on a grid
•RT: Is the “x” on a square covered by the letter? (Y/N)
* __ results for imagined & perceptual conditions
* Images & perceptions use the same __ code (Podgorny & Shepard, 1978)
•Images and perceptions use similar __ systems
–PET scans show similar patterns in __ and __ lobes (Kosslyn et al., 1993)
equivelant
watched
imagined
Same
pictorial
brain
parietal and temporal
148
Five Principles: Images & percepts are functionally analogous:
2. __ Equivalence:
•Subjects studied a map until they could draw it from memory
•Imagine a dot moving from one landmark to another
•Respond when their imagined dot was at the second landmark
* Time to scan the image was linearly related to the __ on the map
* Relative distance is __ in images from pictures
Spatial
distance
preserved
149
Five Principles: Images & percepts are functionally analogous:
3. Images have __ equivalence to percepts (Kosslyn, 1975; Shepard & Metzler, 1971)
Image Scaling(Kosslyn, 1975)
•“Imagine a rabbit. Does it have a nose?”
•Longer time to generate __ images
•Longer time to answer questions about __ images (because of time to “zoom in”)
transformational
larger
small
150
Five Principles: Images & percepts are functionally analogous:
4. __ encoding of spatial information
- spatial, frequency, and temporal information __ encoded in bottom-up processing.
- __ maps
Implicit
automatically
mental
151
Five Principles: Images & percepts are functionally analogous:
5.Images have __ equivalence to the actual object or scene
structural
152
More Evidence for Quasi-Picture View Generating Images:
•Images generated in __, in the same way we might draw them
–Letters (Kosslynet al., 1988)
–Abstract images (Kosslynet al., 1988)
(__ to generate image for "2 rectangles" than "5 diamonds)
parts
easier
153
•What is the Nature of Thought?
•Spatial (__ representation)
OR
•Propositional (__-like representation)
pictorial
language
154
Propositional vs. Spatial
"The cat is under the table"
__: "the cat is under the table" (words)
__: literally imagine a cat sitting under a table.
propositional
spatial
155
•Propositional View (Zenon Psylyshyn)
–All information in _ _ _ is stored in a propositional code (Pylyshyn)
–Experiences of a perceptual component (__) accompany thinking, but are not the thinking __.
•Imagery is an __
–Imagery __ real mechanism, but is not __ of it
LTM
imagery
itself
epiphenomenon
accompanies
part
156
•So, how did Shepard and Kosslyn get their groovy results about imagery?
•According to Pylyshyn, __ knowledge
–Apply knowledge of how things __ in the world
•We know what usually happens when scanning a scene or rotating an image
–We are not __ that we use this knowledge
–__ characteristics of experiments
tacit
work
aware
Demand
157
Evidence for Propositional Thought
1.__nature of concepts
•We can switch between __ and __ a concept
•A third, more abstract, system must translate between __ and __/__ codes
•This system is __
–Subjects could not remember whether they used __ or __ mediation when memory of word pairs was tested (Pylyshyn, 1981)
Abstract
imagining and verbalizing
verbal and spatial/analog
Propositional
verbal or imagery
158
Evidence for Propositional Thought
2.Images are __.
* Imagine a tiger. Easy, AMIRITE?
* How many stripes are on your tiger?
* Tiger image has __ “striped” but the number of stripes is __.
indeterminate
property
unspecified.
159
Evidence for Propositional Thought:
3. Images cannot be ‘_-__’ like pictures, because they use a __ code
ex: which shape is part of the target you saw?
- hard to do from generating target from memory.
re-organized
propositional
160
Rebuttals: Analogue Responses to the Propositional Critique:
* Images are __, but are continuously “__”
* Imagery requires more __ & __ memory processing than perception (Weber, cited in Posner & Raichle, 1994/1997)
- asked subjects to remember 3 letters
- how many letters in lower case form have parts that go above middle?
- did well for a couple of letters, did poorly for larger strings.
•People can re-organize images under the __ conditions
–__ effect observed in Reed & Johnson (measuring what people can't do rather than what they can do)
determinate
refreshed
attention and working memory
right
floor
161
Reorganizing & Reinterpreting Images:
* __% success in reorganizing an image (Finke, Pinker & Farah, 1989)
* Images __ be reinterpreted like pictures! [Supports __ view]
* Almost half of subjects able to rotate __ figure (Mast & Kosslyn, 2002)
70%
can
analogue
ambiguous
162
Brain Mechanisms in Perception & Imagery:
•Quasi-Picture (Analogue) view provided evidence for psychological __ of imagery & perception
–Shepard (mental rotation), Kosslyn (1975), Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser (1978)
•Are there overlapping __ __ involved in perception and imagery?
1.Measurement of brain __
•Subjects studied stimuli in a booklet (line drawings of 90 objects)
•Imagery condition:
•Subjects generated the visual mental image and answered a question such as “Is the object higher than it is wide?”
•Perception condition:
•Subjects saw a low contrast line drawing, and answered the same question as asked in the imagery condition (such as “Is the object higher than it is wide?”)
Frontal area: __ activation
Parietal & Temporal areas: __ activation
Occipital area: Greater activation in __ task
2.Influence of brain __ on perception and imagery
Imagery & Unilateral Neglect
•Bisiach & Luzzatti (1978) tested the imagery of a patient with unilateral neglect.
–Unilateral neglect: attend to only __ side of the visual field and ignore the other side of the visual field
–Often caused by damage to the __ lobe
•The patient imagined himself standing at one of a familiar Piazza and named the objects around the Piazza.
-Could only imagine objects on __ side.
-Thus unilateral neglect also in __ and __
overlap
brain areas
activity
damage
identical
identical
perception
one
parietal
right
perception and imagery
163
Double Dissociation between Perception and Imagery:
C.K.
•Perception __; Imagery __
•__ from car accident
•Visual __: Unable to __ pictures of objects, even his own drawings, in front of him
•He could draw objects in great detail from __ (using __)
R.M.
•Perception __; Imagery __
•Damage to __ and __ lobes
•Could draw accurate pictures of objects in __ of him
•Could not draw accurate pictures of objects from __ (using __)
Perception and Imagery __ Partially (Not Completely)
•Perception: mostly __ visual receiving areas and some __ visual areas
•Imagery: mostly __ visual areas, and some __ visual receiving areas.
```
bad, ok
whiplash
agnosia
name
memory
imagery
```
```
ok, bad
occipital, parietal
front
memory
imagery
```
overlap
lower, higher
higher, lower
164
Imagery for sound: __ imagery
Analogue View: Auditory Perception
•Auditory images mimic __ __.
–Musicians “__” their instrument when they mentally practice (Zatorre & Halpern, 2005)
–Performance time in mental practice __ actual performance time (Langheim et al., 2002)
Imagery and Auditory Perception Use __ Systems (fMRI & PET)
•Brain activity in p__ a__ cortex and a__ a__ cortex
–Greater brain activation in __ auditory cortex during gaps of __ than __ songs; corresponded to __ experience of imagery (Kraemer, Macrae, Green, & Kelley, 2005)
•Activation in auditory association areas during both actual __ and __ of familiar instrumental music (Halpern & Zatorre)
–Instrumental music – __ hemisphere
–Song lyrics – __ activation
auditory
actual hearing
hear
matches
similar
primary auditory cortex
auditory association cortex
left
familiar, unfamiliar
subjective
perception and imagery
right
bilateral
165
neuron has 3 parts:
dendrites (input areas that receive signals from other neurons)
cell body/soma (integrates signal from the dendrites)
one or more axons (transmit information to other neurons)
166
The phrase “cells that fire together, wire together” describes:
__ Learning
How __ learning occurs
Long-term __
hebbian
associative
potentiation
167
What are the advantages of distributed memory systems?
Networks show __ to damage
Networks allow generalization to __, similar stimuli
robustness
novel
168
In your own words, describe what happens at a cellular level when 1) information is encoded and 2) when that same information is retrieved.
Use this perspective to explain why recall is better in congruent than incongruent conditions
When information is encoded, connections are made between neurons and they begin firing together as a response to a stimulus. When that information is later retrieved, the pattern of activation above is reinstated. One stimulus, such as seeing as seeing a rose will trigger the connection of the smell of a rose.
Recall is better in congruent conditions because the conditions in which the information was encoded are the ones in which those connections can be reinstated in response to the same stimuli.
169
The use of nonsense syllables, short retention intervals, and elimination of confounding variables increases the ecological validity of laboratory studies of memory.
true or false
false
170
What part(s) of the brain become(s) active when you intentionally forget something?
Hippocampus
| Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)
171
____ is when newly learned material disrupts the retention and retrieval of previously learned material.
Retroactive interference
172
Henry Bahrick and his family members (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993) learned vocabulary from foreign languages. They learned some of the words in 13 sessions, and others over 26 sessions. The interval between training sessions was 14, 28, or 56 days between sessions. Which variable led to best recall performance over five years later (the longest retention interval)?
Interval between the study sessions (e.g. the spacing effect)
173
The finding that we recall information better when it is relevant to the self is called the ____.
self-reference effect
174
What technique did Ceci and colleagues use to convince children that traumatic events had happened to them, such as getting their finger stuck in a mousetrap?
Asking them about the supposed event once a week for 10 weeks
175
Crime victims' testimony tends to be accurate because their autobiographical memories of traumatic events are flashbulb memories. true or false
false
176
Which type of memory is the last to fully develop in childhood, and the first to decline in adulthood?
Working memory
177
Older adults are better than younger adults at directed (intentional) forgetting.
t or f
false
178
Which part of the brain is typically affected first in patients with Alzheimer’s Disease?
hippocampus
179
Females generally outperform males on list learning tasks that require learning about words or objects.
t or f
true
180
What does Paivio’s Dual Coding theory predict about people’s memory performance?
Words that are easy to image (e.g., dinosaur) should be better remembered than words that are more difficult to image (e.g., oxygen).
181
The memory advantage of high meaningfulness words is because they have a richer network of associations that can serve as mediators to retrieve the to-be-recalled item.
t or f
true
182
Finke, Pinker, and Farah (1989) asked research participants to imagine a letter K, imagine a square next to the K on the left side, put a circle inside the square, and then rotate the whole figure 90 degrees to the left. Afterward, most participants reported “seeing” a TV with antennae. Which claim of the Analog (Quasi-Picture) view did this result support?
Images can be manipulated and reinterpreted, just like pictures.
183
Participants in Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser’s (1978) study memorized a map with multiple landmarks, and then mentally scanned from one landmark to another. Scan times were a function of:
distance between the two landmarks.
184
1st person to study imagery?
sir francis galton
185
Intrusions, sharpening errors, false memories are examples of what?
comission
