MEMORISATION PAPER 2 Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
what is the role of phosphocreatine
A
it is a researve of phosphates
used to convert ADP to ATP for muscle contraction
2
Q
what role does ATP play in muscle contraction
A
ATP causes the active transport of CA 2+ ions into the sarcoplasmic retriculum
ATP also binds to myosin heads inorder to form an actinmyosin cross bridge
3
Q
what is the process of 2nd messenger model with adrenaline and glucagon
A
1.adrenaline/glucagon binds to protein receptor in target liver cell
2.protein changes shape anc acticates** adenyl cyclase**
3.then the adenyl cycles catalyses the converson of ATP to cyclic AMP
4.the cyclic amp then binds to protein enzyme Kinase changing its shape and activating it
5.the activated Kinase enzyme will catalyse conversion of glycogen to glucose
6.glucose leaves via facilitated diffusion
4
Q
what is the 2nd messenger for adrenaline/glucose
A
CYCLIC AMP
5
Q
WHAT IS
GLYCOGENESIS
A
MAKE GLYCOGEN FROM GLUCOSE
6
Q
WHAT IS
GLYCOLYSIS
A
GLYCOGEN TO GLUCOSE
7
Q
WHAT IS
GLUCONEOGENSIS
A
MAKING GLUCOSE FROM NON CARBOHYDRATES SUCH AS AMINO ACIDS
8
Q
WHAT DOES INSULIN DO TO CELLS
A
1.CHANGES SHAPE OF THEIR GLUCOSE CARRIERS OT OPEN
2.MAKES VESICLES W PROTEIN CARRIERS FUSE TO THE CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE
3.INCREASES REATE OF RESPIRATION ( MAKES THERE BE LESS GLUCOSE IN CELL TO THEN CONC GRAD AND THEY ENTER THE CELL )
4.TRIGGER GLUCOSE TO BE CONVERTED TO GLYCOGEN
9
Q
WHAT DOES GLUCAGON BIND TO
A
LIVER TARGET CELLS (HEPATOCYTES)
10
Q
WHAT ELSE GLUCAGON DO OTHER THAN ACTIVATE GLYCOLYSIS
A
- ACTIVATES ENZYMES INVOLVED IN GLUCONEOGENISIS
- this is the conversion of non-carbs such as amino acids into glucose
11
Q
what does glomerula filtrate pass through
A
- capillary epthelium
- gaps between podocyte cells that make up the basement membrane
12
Q
what is the name of the system that ensure water always leaves into the blood capillary out of the loop of henle and collecting duct
A
counter current multiplier
13
Q
WHAT RELEASES ADH
A
POSTERIER PITUATARY GLAND
14
Q
WHERE ARE OSMORECEPTORS FOR WATER CONCENTRATION/POTENTIAL IN BLOOD
A
HYPOTHALAMUS
15
Q
what is formula for making H2O at the end of oxidative phosphorylation
A
1/2 O2 + 2e- + 2H+ –> H2O
16
Q
what are the processes that occur in the krebs cycle
A
1.4C molecule turns to 6C molecule as acetate/acety CoA is added
2. 2x CO2 are released
3. An NAD turns to NADH
4. FAD turns to FADH
5. ATP is made
17
Q
draw out krebs cycle
A
18
Q
draw out the link reaction
A
19
Q
draw out glycolysis
A
20
Q
what processes occur in the link reaction
A
1.CO2 is released
2.An NAD goes to NADH
3.acetate is made as intermediate
4.acetate joins CoA(conenzyme A)
5.AcetylCoA is made
21
Q
what is made in glycolysis
A
- 2 net ATP are made
- 2 NADH are made
- 2 pyruvate are made
22
Q
why is energy released in steps across the electron transport chain
A
because if it was all released in one go then more energy would be wasted as heat.
so the electrons carried by FAD and NAD are not transferred in one step but instead pass along a series of electron carriers gradually losing more energy.
23
Q
what are the two alternative respiratory substrates
A
Lipids
Proteins
24
Q
How are lipids used as respiratory substrates
A
- hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol
- glycerol is phosphorylated to make TP triose phosphate
- the fatty acid is broken down into 2 carbon fragments, converted to acetylCoA
- H atoms are also made and used to make ATP
25
how are proteins used as respiratory substrates
1. hydrolysed to amino acids
2. the NH2 group is remove
3. then added into different parts depending on length of the C chain e.g. 3 -pyruvate
26
what us pyruvate converted to in animal anaerobic respiration
lactate
27
what is pyruvate converted to in anaerobic respiration with plants and microorganisms
ethanol and CO2
28
Define what is meant by epigenetics.
Heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes to the base sequence of DNA;
29
what is the epigenome
The epigenome controls gene expression through chemical modifications to DNA and associated proteins using chemical tags via methylation and acetylation
30
what three things should you mention when you talk about reject/accept hypothesis of chi-squared
-whether your chi-squared value is bigger or smaller than critical value
-at a 0.05 probability
-there is a ----- probability that difference between observed and expected is due to chance
31
what is a DNA Probe
1. Short single strand of DNA;
2. Bases complementary (with DNA/allele/gene);
32
where do restriction endonucleases cut
They cut at recognition sites , which are often palindromic sequences.
33
how do you increase permeability in host cell for uptake of a vector
calcium ions
heatshock/electric shock
34
when you mention respiratory loses what else must you mention
heat loss
| ALWAYS MENTION BOTH INCASE..
35
what are the temperatures involved in the PCR
95 degrees celsius to seperate the DNA
55 degrees celsius for addition of primers
72 degrees for the synthesis of DNA (optimum temp for DNA polymerase to work)
36
in what machine is PCR done
thermocycler
37
what do we use to pull the dna down in gel electrophoresis
electrical voltage
38
what 5 conditions need to met for hardy weinberg to apply to a population
1- No mutations arise
2- Population is isolated no flow of alleles in other out ( no immigration / migration)
3- There is no selection ,that is, alleles are equally likely to be passed to the next generation
4- Population is large
5- Mating is random
39
how do you write a speciation answer
1.what type- then explain (e.g. allopatric- geographically isolated)
2.reproductively isolated, no flow of genes
3.different seletion pressures
4.type of selection e.g. disruptive/stabalising/sirectional
5.genetic variation due to mutations
6.change in allele frequency of the diff genepools
7.eventually cannot breed to produce fertile offspring
| some Qs can talk about 2 types so watch out for that
40
what is genetic drift
?? still need to come up with a good answer
41
Explain the advantage of species occupying different niches
(Less) competition for food/resource
42
define niche
An organism’s role / in the ecosystem / community
43
mark release recapture formula/
estimated population size
44
Describe and explain how succession occurs
MS points
1. (Colonisation by) pioneer (species);
2. Change in environment / example of change caused by organisms present;
3. Enables other species to colonise / survive;
4. Change in diversity / biodiversity;
5. Stability increases / less hostile environment;
6. Climax community;
this is more of PLAN
| these are just the MS point obv expand more in ur answer
45
why would you want to conserve a habitat
- tries remove CO2 (climate change)
- economic e.g. tourism
- high biodiversity should be protect as the genes can be used in medicine
46
why are observed phenotypic ratios not the same as expected in genetic crosses
-random fertilisation
-small sample size
-epistasis
-linkage
| think about the context, cuz some dont have linkage or epistasis
47
what is the ratio for a heterozygous dihybrid cross
9:3:3:1
48
what does ATP do in presynaptic membrane
It is used to reform acetylcholine with choline and acetyl
49
WHAT ARE THE STEPS OF IN VIVO CLONING
- **isolation** of the DNA
- **insertion** of DNA into a vector
- **transformation** - transfer of the DNA into a host cell (becomes transgenic)
- **identification** of host cells that have taken up gene
- **cloning** of host cell
50
what are the 3 methods of producing DNA fragments
- convert mRNA to cDNA using reverse transcriptase
- use restriction endonucleases to cut out fragments
- create gene using a gene machine
51
where do restriction endonucleases cut?
recognition site
52
describe epigenetics
Heritable changes in gene function;
Without changes to the base sequence of DNA;
53
how can you describe the membrane of an axon at resting potential interms of permeability
the membrane is more permeable to K ions than Na ions....
54
give reasons for low percentage energy transferred forn secondary to tertialry consumer
- respiratory loses from heat
- not all of the organism can be consumed e.g. faeces
- exctretion such as urine
55
why would light from the sun not be used for photosynthesis
- does not land on a chlorophyll molecule
- nother limiting factor e.g. CO2
- wavelength cannot be absorbed by a pigment
-
56
why is ' the increase in biomass' used as a measurment of net primary productivity
- the biomass represents the drymass/mass of carbon
- it takes into account respiratory loses
- NPP= (GPP-R)
57
what do you need to include in Qs about energy and ecosystems
ALWAYS ADD THE FORMULAS
58
what are the characteristic of begnin tumours
- large
- slow growth
- relatively normal nucleus
- localised effect
- produce adhesion molecules to they stick together DO NOT METASISE
59
what are characteristics of malignant tumours
- large
- rapid growth
- larger and darker nucleus due to more DNA
- systematic affect (whole body )
- do not have adhesion molecuels and so they spread THEY METASISE
60
what does standard deviation tell you
Degree of spread / variation from the mean
61
whtas the name of substance that binds to receptor protein and leads to cell dividision..
(execessively made by oncogenes)
growth factors
62
what epigenetic change can lead to cancer
- hypermethylation of tumour surpressor genes
- acetylation at an oncogene....
63
why are post menopausal women more likely to develop breast cancer
- they produce lots of oestrogen in breast tissue
- this leads to increased cell division in breast tissue
- this can increase risk of malignant tumour
64
why do we need a primer to do PCR
- DNA polymerase can only bind nucleotides to the end of an existing chain
- also it prevents the two complementary chains from rejoiningf
65
what enzyme is used in PCR
taq polymerase/ DNA polymerase
66
what word is used to describe binding between DNA probes and target allele
anneal
67
what are the 5 main stages of genetic fingerprinitng
- extraction
- digestion
- seperation
- hybridisation
- development
68
describe genetic finger printing
69
at what stage are DNA fragments on the agar transferred and where to
- during the end of seperation, before hybridisation
- nylon membrane
70
name of precess a probe has been binded to DNA
hybridisation
71
what needs to be done to create a generator potential in rod cells
rhodopsin pigment needs to be broken down, low intensity light is enough
72
what needs to be done to create a generator potential in cone cells
iodopsin pigment needs to be broken down, high intensity light is needed
73
how do you estimate population from mark, release,recapture..
1. Capture sample, mark and release;
2. Appropriate method of marking which does not harm organism
E.g. attaching a tag / paint / marker.
3. Take second sample and count marked organisms;
4. EQUATION
73
what needs to be mentioned when talking about why a tumour will form
- methylation of/actylation....
- mutation in that gene
- more/less transcription of gene
- uncontrolled cell division
74
Describe how to measure distribution of plant species from 1 point to another
1. Transect / tape measure (from one side to the other);
2. Place quadrats at regular intervals along the line;
3. Count plants percentage cover / abundance scale in the quadrats
Use several transects;
75
when talking about transcets / quadrats what should you mension
- use many quadrats + use many transects
76
define population:
organisms of one species in an ecosystem / habitat / area;
77
define community:
organisms of all species / all populations in an
ecosystem / habitat / area
78
what is intraspecific competition
competition for food and resources within a species
79
what is interspecific competition
competition for food and resources between different species
80
what is needed for mark,release and recap to be valid
- No immigration / migration
- No reproduction or death/ very few
- Marking does not influence behaviour e.g. increase vulnerability
to predation
- Sample population large enough
- individuals from the first capture distrubuted evenly
81
when talking abt a process with a location...
say the location just in case
82
in genetic Qs becareful if they ask for ...
ratio or No of each phenotype
83
when you talk about application of selection pressure mention
- type of selection
- it starts with mutation
- allele frequency
- survival and reproducing
84
when a gene is sex linked and common in men, mention
it is on the X chromosome
85
how do you figure out the degrees of freedom
categories - one
86
when conditoins remain constant over a long period of time what selection occurs
stabilising
87
why do we use logs to plot graphs for bacteria
large range/difference / increase in numbers...
88
what is secondary succession
succession where land presiously supported life but stopped, maybe due to wild fire.
steps of succession are the same but happen faster as it has the - nutrients to sustain life in soil and is not as hostile as barren land
- there is likely be plants and animals nearby..
89
when you mention nutrients..
NAME THEM E.G. GLUCOSE OR PROTEINS
90
what are the adaptations of slow twitch muscles
- lots of mitochondria
- rich blood suppply as they are optimised for aerobic resp
- large store of myoglobin
91
what are the adaptations of fast twitch muscles
- store of glycogen
- lots of phosphocreatine to make ATP in anaeobic conditions
- high concentration of enzymes invovled in anaerobic respiration to rapidly make ATP
92
draw out the muscle bands etc..
93
draw phosphorus cycle
94
oxygen plays what role in oxidative phosphorylation
final electron acceptor
95
describe role of siRNA in regulating transcription
96
how do you calculate dry mass
- collect and dry all above ground plant material;
(reject collect one / small sample / whole plants)
- in an oven at or just below 100 oC;
- weigh and repeat until constant mass;
96
what does GP stand for
glycerate -3- phosphate
97
what is chemiosmosis
the movement of H+ ions into the thylakoid via ETC and out via atp synthase ( down electrochemical gradient)
98
whta is used to make IPS
adult somatic cells
