Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 3 key concepts of memories?
A
Coding
Capacity
Duration
2
Q
What is Coding?
A
The format in which information is stored
Information is stored in many different forms depending on the memory store
We can convert between them
3
Q
Who researched Coding?
A
Baddeley
4
Q
What year did Baddeley conduct his research on Coding?
A
1966
5
Q
What was Baddeley’s procedure for his Coding research?
A
He gave 4 different lists of words to 4 groups of participants
They had to learn and recall the words in order
The lists were:
1) Acoustically Similar
2) Acoustically Different
3) Semantically Similar
4) Semantically Different
He had 2 recall conditions:
1) Read words and recall immediately to test the Short Term Memory
2) Read words and recall them after a time interval of 20mins to test the Long Term Memory
6
Q
How many conditions did Baddeley use for his Coding research?
A
4 sets of words
2 recall conditions
7
Q
What were the 4 types of word list in Baddeley’s Coding research?
A
Acoustically Similar
Acoustically Different
Semantically Similar
Semantically Different
8
Q
What are Acoustically Similar words?
A
Words that sound the same
9
Q
What are Acoustically Different words?
A
Words that do not sound the same
10
Q
What are Semantically Similar words?
A
Words that have similar meaning
11
Q
What are Semantically Different words?
A
Words that do not have similar meaning
12
Q
What were the 2 recall conditions of Baddeley’s Coding study?
A
Read words and recall immediately to test Short Term Memory
Read words and recall after a time interval of 20mins to test Long Term Memory
13
Q
What did Baddeley find in his Coding research?
A
Immediate recall (STM):
- significantly worse recall on acoustically similar words
Recall after 20mins (LTM):
- significantly worse recall on semantically similar words
14
Q
What do Baddeley’s findings from his Coding research suggest?
A
Immediate recall was worse for acoustically similar words
- This suggests the STM is coded acoustically by sound, and so recalling information that sounds similar is confusing
Recall after 20mins was worse for semantically similar words
- This suggests the LTM is coded semantically by meaning, and so recalling information that has similar meaning is confusing
15
Q
Briefly evaluate Research into Coding (*)
A
Good - Baddeley identifies a clear difference between memory stores
- the majority of his findings are still used today, suggesting temporal validity
Bad - Baddeley uses artificial tasks
- low mundane realism questions our ability to apply it to everyday life
16
Q
What is Capacity?
A
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
17
Q
What is a Digit Span?
A
The amount of digits we can recall correctly before incorrectly remembering one
18
Q
Who are the researchers for Capacity?
A
Jacob - Digit Span
Miller - Capacity of Short Term Memory
19
Q
What did Jacobs research?
A
STM Capacity - Digit Span
20
Q
What was Jacob’s procedure?
A
- He read out 4 digits and letters to participants for them to recall in the correct order
- The researcher added another digit after each correct recall
- They added digits until the participant could only recall the correct information 50% of the time
- This indicated their digit span
21
Q
Until when did Jacobs add a digit on the end of each correct recall?
A
Until the participant could only recall the correct information 50% of the time
22
Q
What did Jacobs find?
A
The mean digit span for digits was 9.3
The mean digit span for letters was 7.3
23
Q
What did Jacobs find the mean digit span was for digits?
A
9.3
24
Q
What did Jacobs find the mean digit span was for letters?
A
7.3
25
What did Miller research?
Capacity of the Short Term Memory
26
What was Miller's procedure?
- He observed memory in everyday practice and found patterns, such as 7 musical notes, 7 deadly sins, 7 days of the week
- He noticed that most chunks of information are in 5s and 7s
- He suggested the capacity of the Short Term Memory from his observations
27
What is Chunking?
Grouping Digits or Letters into Units or Chunks to help memory
28
What did Miller find/suggest?
The capacity of the STM is around 7+-2
He suggested it was 5-9 chunks
29
What is the Coding of the STM?
Acoustic
30
What is the Coding of the LTM?
Semantic
31
What is the Capacity of the STM?
7+-2 or 5-9 chunks
32
What is the Capacity of the LTM?
Potentially Unlimited
33
Briefly evaluate research into Capacity (*)
Good - Jacobs' study has been replicated
- His findings have been found to be consistent and reliable
- This suggests temporal validity
Bad - Miller may have overestimated STM capacity
- Newer research suggests the capacity is 4+-1
- Suggests his lower estimate of 5 is likely accurate
Bad - Jacobs research used artificial tasks
- Study into capacity has low mundane realism
- May not accurate regarding STM capacity during real world tasks/situations
34
What is Duration?
The length of time information can be held in memory
35
Who researched Duration?
Peterson and Peterson (STM)
Bahrick et al (LTM)
36
Who researched Coding, Capacity and Duration of Memory?
Baddeley (Coding of STM and LTM)
Jacobs (Digit Span)
Miller (Capacity of STM)
Peterson and Peterson (Duration of STM)
Bahrick et al (Duration of LTM)
37
What did Peterson and Peterson research?
Duration of STM
38
What was Peterson and Peterson's procedure?
- They presented participants with trigrams (3 consonants)
- They avoided vowels, acronyms, and initialisms so participants couldn't form words to help them
- They asked the participants to count backwards in 3s from a 3 digit number to prevent mental rehearsal
- The participants were asked to stop counting after various amounts of time ( a retention interval)
- They then recalled their trigrams
39
What is a trigram?
3 consonants
40
What is a retention interval?
A period of time the participant waited before recalling
41
What did Peterson and Peterson avoid in their trigrams?
Why?
Vowels, acronyms and initialisms
This prevented the participants from forming words to aid their memory
42
What did Peterson and Peterson make participants do before recalling?
Why?
They counted backwards in 3s from a 3 digit number until told to recall
This prevented any mental rehearsal
43
What did Peterson and Peterson find?
Recall after 3 seconds: 80%
Recall after 18 seconds: 3%
44
What was the average recall after 3 seconds? (P+P)
80%
45
What was the average recall after 18 seconds? (P+P)
3%
46
What do Peterson and Peterson's findings suggest?
The duration of the STM is between 18 and 30 seconds
47
What is the Duration of the STM?
18-30 seconds
48
What did Bahrick et al research?
Duration of LTM
49
What was Bahrick et al's procedure?
- They used an opportunity sample
- They used 392 American participants between 17 and 74 years old
- They used their High School Yearbooks to test recall in 3 ways:
1) Photo-recognition test
- 50 photos were used including some who were not their classmates
2) Free Recall test
- Participants recalled the names from their graduating class
3) Name and Photo match
50
What was Bahrick et al's sample?
An opportunity sample of 392 American Male participants between the age of 17 and 74
51
What did Bahrick et al use to test Duration of LTM?
High school yearbooks
52
What were the 3 tests Bahrick et al used to test Duration of LTM?
Photo recognition test - 50 photos and some weren't from yearbook
Free Recall - recall as many names as possible from graduating class
Name and photo match
53
What did Bahrick et al find?
Within 15 years of graduation, recall was 90%
After 48 years of graduation, recall was 70%
54
What was recall after 15 years of graduation? (Bahrick)
90%
55
What was recall after 48 years of graduation? (Bahrick)
70%
56
What do Bahrick et al's findings suggest?
LTM duration is potentially unlimited
57
What is the Duration of LTM?
Potentially unlimited
58
Briefly Evaluate Duration (*)
Good - Bahrick has high external validity
- Researchers investigated real and meaningful/personal memories
- Suggests his findings reflect a real estimate of LTM duration
Bad - Peterson and Peterson used an artificial task
- Lacks mundane realism
- Doesn't reflect memory in real life so could lack external validity
59
How many types of Long Term Memory are there?
3
60
What are the 3 types of Long Term Memory?
Episodic
Semantic
Procedural
61
Who suggested the types of LTM?
Tulving et al
62
What is Episodic Memory?
A LTM store for personal events from our lives
It is complex as elements are interwoven to produce a single memory
- it contains when and where events occurred, who was there, and the objects and behaviour involved
63
What are features of Episodic Memory?
Time-Stamped memories
- You remember when they happened
Declarative memories
- You can verbally express the memories
Memories must be retrieved consciously with effort
64
What is Semantic Memory?
A LTM store for our knowledge of the world
It includes our facts and knowledge of what words and concepts mean
It is similar to a dictionary
- it is always being added to
It is less vulnerable to forgetting or distortion than procedural memory
65
What are features of Semantic Memory?
Not Time-Stamped
- You don't remember when you learned something
Declarative memories
- You can express them verbally
Memories must be retrieved consciously with effort
66
What is Procedural Memory?
A LTM store for our knowledge of how to do things
It includes our memories of learned actions and skills
They become automatic over time
67
What are features of Procedural Memory?
Not Time-Stamped
- You don't remember when you learned something
Not Declarative
- You cannot express a skill verbally
Memories eventually do not need to be retrieved consciously or with effort as they become automatic
68
What is an example of Episodic Memory?
A memory of a birthday party:
You know when/where it was
You know who was there
You could tell someone else what happened
69
What is an example of Semantic Memory?
Vocabulary:
You constantly add to it by learning new words
You can tell others the words you know and what words mean
You do not know when you learned a word
70
What is an example of Procedural Memory?
Driving:
You learn it once and then it becomes an automatic skill
You do not know exactly when it became an unconscious skill
You cannot explain to someone else how you know how to drive
71
What LTM stores are declarative?
Episodic
Semantic
72
What LTM stores are time-stamped?
Episodic
73
What LTM stores must be retrieved consciously with effort?
Episodic
Semantic
74
What LTM stores are not declarative?
Procedural
75
What LTM stores are not time-stamped?
Semantic
Procedural
76
What LTM stores do not need to be retrieved consciously or with effort?
Procedural
77
What are 3 case studies for memory?
HM
Clive Wearing
KF
78
What is the Case Study of HM?
What does he suggest?
- He had brain surgery to help his epilepsy
- This procedure was not fully understood and his hippocampus was removed
- The hippocampus is central to memory function
- He had his memory assessed in 1955 and he thought it was 1953
- He believed he was 27 instead of 31
- He had little recall of the operation
- He could not form new LTM
e.g. He would read the same magazine without remembering it, he could not recall what he ate earlier
- However, he performed well on tests of immediate memory span to measure STM
- He suggests that the STM and LTM must be separate
- HM also could not remember what a dog was, but he could remember stroking one earlier
- This suggests his procedural memory was in tact but the semantic and episodic memory was damaged
79
What is the Case Study of KF?
What does he suggest?
- KF had amnesia
- His STM for digits was poor when they were read out loud to him
- His recall was better when he read the digits to himself
- This suggests that there must be more than one STM store to process different types of information such as auditory and visual
80
What is the Case Study of Clive Wearing?
What does he suggest?
- Clive Wearing had amnesia
- His hippocampus was damaged
- Before amnesia, he was a world-class musician
- After the damage, he could still play the piano brilliantly
- He could not remember other types of memory though
e.g. he knows he has children from a previous marriage but cannot remember their names, and he recognises his second wife but every time she comes in he believes he has not seen her in years
- This supports different types of LTM as he can remember procedural memories but not episodic
81
What can HM be used for?
- Supporting MSM by saying there are different STM and LTM stores
- Supporting types of LTM by saying there are different areas for procedural, episodic and semantic
82
What can KF be used for?
- Supporting WMM
- Refuting MSM
(there are different stores of STM for visual and auditory)
83
What can Clive Wearing be used for?
- Different types of LTM (procedural and episodic)
84
Evaluate types of LTM
Good - Case Study Support (x2)
- Clive Wearing could play piano but not remember his childrens' names or when he last saw his wife due to amnesia
- Suggests there are different stores of LTM
- HM also supports this
- He remembered stroking a dog earlier that day (procedural) but could not remember what a dog was (semantic/episodic)
Good - Brain Scan evidence
- Tulving et al
- Participants performed different tasks while having a PET scan
- It illuminated episodic memory activity in the right prefrontal cortex and semantic memories in the left prefrontal cortex
- Shows they are separate
Good - Real world application
- Understanding the different types of memory loss humans develop with age has allowed researchers to train these areas and provide treatments
- e.g. episodic memories are usually first to be affected in dementia, so this area has been trained and treated and it was found to be effective
85
Who created the Multi-store Model of Memory?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
86
What is the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
A memory model suggested by Atkinson and Shiffrin
- It suggests there are 3 unitary stores
- It suggests information passes linearly through the 3 stores
- It describes how information flows through the memory system
87
How many stores are in the MSM?
3 unitary (separate) stores
88
What are the 3 stores in the MSM?
Sensory Register
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
89
What does the Sensory Register do?
- Takes information in from the environment through the sense organs
- Holds it in a store temporarily in the same form
- There are 5 stores (one for each sense)
90
What is the Coding of the Sensory Register?
Modality Specific
- It depends on the sense the information entered through
e.g. Iconic memory is visual, so it is coded visually
91
What is the Capacity of the Sensory Register?
Very high
- each eye has over 100million cells that store data
92
What is the Duration of the Sensory Register?
Less than half a second
- If we pay attention to the information, it passes into the STM
93
What is the key process in the Sensory Register?
Attention
- if we pay attention to the information taken in, it will pass to the STM
94
Who researched the Sensory Register?
Sperling
95
What did Sperling do?
Researched the Sensory Register and supported its existence
96
What was Sperling's procedure?
- Showed participants a grid of digits for 50milliseconds
- Asked them to recall a certain row
97
What did Sperling find?
- Approximately 3 items were remembered when he thought 4 should have been
98
What do Sperling's findings suggest?
Information decays rapidly in the sensory register, so memories cannot be held for long
It supports the existence of a Sensory Register
99
How does information pass through the MSM?
Linearly through 3 unitary stores:
Environmental Stimulus --> Sensory Register (attention) --> STM (maintenance rehearsal) --> LTM --> STM (retrieval)
100
What store does information pass to after the Sensory Register?
STM
101
What is the key process in the STM?
Maintenance Rehearsal
If we repeat material over and over again through prolonged rehearsal, the information passes to the LTM
If information is not repeated, it can decay
102
What store does information pass to after the STM?
LTM
103
What is the key process in the LTM?
Retrieval
When we want to recall information from the LTM, we must transfer it to the STM via retrieval
If not often retrieved, information can be distorted, forgotten or it can decay
104
Evaluate the Multi-Store Model of Memory
Good - Research supporting different STM and LTM stores
- Baddeley
- His research showed after immediate recall, recall was worse for acoustically similar words, and after a retention interval of 20minutes, recall was worse for semantically similar words, showing different coding so different stores
(can evaluate Baddeley too - scientific but low mundane realism)
Good - Case Study support for different STM and LTM stores
HM
- Had brain surgery for epilepsy removing his hippocampus - associated with memory function
- He could not form new LTM and believed it to be 1953 when it was 1955
- He could however perform well on immediate memory tests
- This supports different stores for STM and LTM
Bad - Case Study contradiction
KF
- Had amnesia affecting his memory
- He performed poorly on recall tests when he listened to the digits and words he had to remember
- He performed well on the same tests when he read the information himself
- This suggests there should be sub-stores in the STM, and it is not a unitary store
- This matters because it suggests the MSM oversimplifies memory storage
105
What was the new improvement of the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
The Working Memory Model
106
Who suggested the Working Memory Model?
Baddeley and Hitch
107
How many components are in the WMM?
4
108
What are the 4 components of the WMM?
- Central Executive
3 slave systems:
- Episodic Buffer
- Visuospatial Sketchpad
- Phonological Loop
109
What is the Central Executive?
The main, supervisory component of the WMM
- It controls everything
- It is modality free meaning it processes information from all senses
- It monitors incoming data and focuses and divides our attention
- It allocates tasks to subsystems
- It makes decisions
- It retrieves information from the LTM
110
What is the Capacity of the Central Executive?
Limited
- It doesn't store information
111
What is the Coding of the Central Executive?
Modality free - it processes information from all senses
112
What is the Phonological Loop?
The component of the WMM that deals with auditory information
It preserves the order the information arrives in
It has 2 subdivisions
113
How many subdivisions does the Phonological Loop have?
2
114
What are the 2 subdivisions of the Phonological Loop?
The Articulatory Processor
The Phonological Store
115
What does the Articulatory Processor do in the Phonological Loop?
It stores the words we hear
116
What does the Phonological Store do in the Phonological Loop?
It allows for maintenance rehearsal by repeating the sounds or words to keep them in the Working Memory while they are needed
(the voice in our head)
117
What is the Coding of the Phonological Loop?
Acoustically
118
What is the Duration of the Phonological Loop?
2 seconds of what you can say
119
What is the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
The component of the WMM that deals with visual and spatial information
It stores this information temporarily when required
It stores what things look like and the spatial relationship between things using 2 subdivisions
120
How many subdivisions does the VSS have?
2
121
What are the 2 subdivisions of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
The Visual Cache
The Inner Scribe
122
What does the Visual Cache do in the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
It stores visual data
123
What does the Inner Scribe do in the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
It records the arrangements of objects (spatial relationship)
124
What is the Coding of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
Iconic
125
What is the Capacity of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
3-4 objects
126
What is the Duration of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
Temporary
127
What is the Duration of the Phonological Loop?
Temporary
128
What is the Episodic Buffer?
The 3rd Slave System of the WMM
- It was later added by Baddeley
It is a temporary store
It integrates the visual, spatial and verbal information processed by other stores
It maintains a sense of time sequencing by recording the events and episodes happening
It links the working memory to LTM and wider cognitive processes such as perception
129
What is the Capacity of the Episodic Buffer?
4 Chunks
130
Evaluate the Working Memory Model
Good - Case Study Evidence
KF
- patient with amnesia
- performed well on recall tasks when he read the digits himself but did not perform well when they were read aloud to him
- this supports the idea that visual and auditory information must be in different stores
Bad - Lack of clarity and research
Central Executive
- supposedly the most important component
- we do not know much about it or how it actually functions
- it is the most important but the least understood
- there is not enough clarity on it to create generalisable models of memory
Good - Research Support
Baddeley
- participants carried out visual and verbal tasks at the same time
- their performance was similar to when they performed them at separate times
- he then got participants to do 2 visual tasks or 2 verbal tasks at the same time
- their performance decreased
- this provides evidence for separate stores, because the CE had to prioritise one of the tasks as they were in the same store
131
Draw the Working Memory Model
EB in middle (circle) - arrows up and down
CE at top (square) - arrows either side and down
VSS at left hand side (square split into 2 subsystems) - arrows either side
LTM at bottom (square) - arrows either side and above
PL at right hand side (square split into 2 subsystems) - arrows either side
132
How many explanations for forgetting are there?
2
133
What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?
Interference
Retrieval Failure
134
How many types of interference are there?
2
135
What are the 2 types of interference?
Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference
136
What is Interference?
An explanation of forgetting that suggests 2 pieces of information disrupt each other, causing distortion or forgetting
- Memories are still available, but we cannot access them as interference makes them harder to locate
- Usually happens in LTM
- Interference is more likely when memories are similar
137
Where does interference usually take place?
LTM
138
When is interference more likely to happen?
when memories are similar
139
What is Proactive interference?
OLD memories INTERFERE with NEW memories, causing NEW memories to be FORGOTTEN
140
What is Retroactive interference?
NEW memories INTERFERE with OLD memories, causing OLD memories to be FORGOTTEN
141
How can I remember which memories are forgotten in proactive interference and retroactive interference?
The first part of the interference is FORGOTTEN
e.g.
PROactive interference --> NEW information is forgotten
RETROactive interference --> OLD information is forgotten
142
What information is forgotten in PROactive interference?
New information
143
What information is forgotten in RETROactive interference?
Old information
144
What is an example of Proactive Interference?
A teacher learned old class names
A teacher learns new class names
The teacher cannot remember their new class' names as the old names have interfered
145
What is an example of Retroactive Interference?
A teacher learned old class names
A teacher learns new class names
The teacher cannot remember their old class' names as the new names have interfered
146
What are the key concepts/researchers included in Explanations for Forgetting
Interference:
Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference
McGeogh and McDonald
Retrieval Failure:
Cues - internal and external
Context-Dependent forgetting
State-Dependent forgetting
Encoding Specificity Principle
Godden and Baddeley - context-dependent forgetting and external cues
Goodwin et al - state-dependent forgetting and internal cues
147
What is Retrieval Failure?
Forgetting due to insufficient cues
We do not have the necessary cues to access the information
If cues are not available at the time of recall, the memory is available but not accessible due to retrieval failure
148
What are Cues?
Triggers of information that allow us to access a memory
149
What are the 2 types of indirect cues?
Internal cues
External cues
150
What are Internal Cues?
Cues inside the person, for example, mood or intoxication
151
What are External Cues?
Cues outside the person, for example, weather, temperature or location
152
What are Indirect Cues?
Cues that are indirectly linked by being encoded (present) at the time of learning
153
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?
The idea that for a Cue to be helpful, it must be present at coding (when it is learned), and retrieval
If the cues present at coding and retrieval are different, there may be forgetting
154
How many types of forgetting are there?
2
155
What are the 2 types of forgetting?
Context-dependent forgetting
State-dependent forgetting
156
What is Context-Dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on external cues such as weather and place
157
What is State-Dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on internal cues such as emotions and intoxication
158
Who are the researchers for Explanations of Forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley - context dependent forgetting
Goodwin - state dependent forgetting
McGeogh and McDonald - interference
159
Who researched Interference as an Explanation of Forgetting?
McGeogh and McDonald researched effects of similarity on recall
160
What did McGeogh and McDonald do?
Researched effects of similarity on recall to evidence Interference as and Explanation of Forgetting
161
What was McGeogh and Mcdonald's Procedure?
- Gave participants a list of 10 words
- The words were learned to 100% accuracy
- The participants were then split into 6 groups to learn another set of words:
1) Synonyms
2) Antonyms
3) Unrelated Words
4) Consonant Syllables
5) 3 Digit Numbers
6) No new list (control group)
- They then recalled their original set of words
162
What did McGeogh and McDonald find?
Recall was the worst for participants who learned the list of Synonyms
Interference is the strongest when memories are similar
163
What did Godden and Baddeley do?
Researched context-dependent forgetting as an explanation for forgetting
164
What was Godden and Baddeley's procedure?
They used 18 deep-sea divers
They learned a list of 36 unrelated words with 2-3 syllables
Their recall was tested in 1 of 4 conditions:
1) Learn on land, Recall on land
2) Learn on land, Recall underwater
3) Learn underwater, Recall underwater
4) Learn underwater, Recall on land
165
What was Godden and Baddeley's sample?
18 deep-sea divers
166
How many words did the deep-sea divers learn in Godden and Baddeley's study?
36 words with 2-3 syllables
167
What did Godden and Baddeley find?
Recall was 40% lower when conditions did not match
This suggests different locations were likely to lead to retrieval failure
168
What did Goodwin et al do?
Researched state-dependent forgetting as and explanation for forgetting
169
What was Goodwin et al's procedure?
48 medical students participated in a 2 day study
- They all had a training session
- They then learned a list of words to test recall
- They were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups:
1) Intoxicated both days with alcohol injections
2) Intoxicated on day 1, Sober on day 2
3) Sober both days
4) Sober on day 1, Intoxicated on day 2
- They recalled their list the second day
170
What was Goodwin et al's sample?
48 medical students
171
What did Goodwin et al find?
Recall was significantly worse when conditions were different on days 1 and 2
172
Evaluate Explanations for Forgetting
Good - Lots of research support for all explanations
- Godden and Baddeley
- Goodwin
- McGeogh and McDonald
Good - High control
Bad - Low ecological validity
- could question the basis of the theories
Bad - Some of the research may have used methods that are more likely to lead to forgetting
- Godden and Baddeley used underwater and on land, which are huge differences
- He suggested that the differences in real world environments are unlikely to be that large (e.g. learn in one room, repeat in another)
- This suggests that some concepts and research could lack external validity
173
How many main Factors are there that Affect Eye Witness Testimony?
2 main factors
174
How many Factors are there overall that affect Eye Witness Testimony? (Main and Sub)
6 (2 main factors plus 4 sub factors)
175
What are all of the factors that affect Eye Witness Testimony?
Misleading Information
- Leading Questions
- Post Event Discussion
Anxiety
- Positive
- Negative
176
What are the 2 main factors that affect Eye Witness Testimony?
Misleading Information
Anxiety
177
What are Eye Witness Testimonies?
The ability of people to remember the details of the events they have observed (crimes/accidents)
178
What does Misleading Information include as a factor affecting Eye Witness Testimony?
Leading Questions
Post Event Discussions
179
What are Leading Questions?
Questions where the phrasing suggests a certain answer
180
What is Response Bias?
The wording doesn't affect memory, it just encourages a certain answer
181
What is the Substitution Explanation?
The wording actually changes and distorts a memory
182
Who researched Leading Questions as a factor affecting Eye Witness Testimony?
Loftus and Palmer
183
Who are the researchers for Factors Affecting Eye Witness Testimony?
Loftus and Palmer
Gabbert et al
Johnson and Scott
Yuille and Cutshaw
184
Who are the researchers for Misleading Information as a Factor Affecting EWT?
Leading Questions:
Loftus and Palmer
Post Event Discussion:
Gabbert et al
185
Who are the researchers for Anxiety as a Factor Affecting EWT?
Negative (Weapon Focus Effect):
Johnson and Scott
Positive (Yerkes-Dodson law):
Yuille and Cutshaw
186
What did Loftus and Palmer research?
Leading Questions as a type of Misleading Information Affecting EWT
187
What was Loftus and Palmer's Procedure?
45 University Students watched a film of a car accident
- They were all asked the same leading question:
"How fast were the cars going when they _______ each other?"
- There were 5 groups, each with a different verb:
1) smashed
2) hit
3) contacted
4) bumped
5) collided
- Loftus and Palmer calculated the mean average speed for each leading question
188
What was Loftus and Palmer's sample?
45 University Students
189
What were some of the verbs from Loftus and Palmer's leading questions?
Smashed
Hit
Collided
Bumped
Contacted
190
What did Loftus and Palmer find?
The verb Contacted had the lowest mean speed
The verb Smashed had the highest mean speed
- The leading question led to bias of the answer
191
What did Loftus and Palmer do after their leading question study?
They interviewed the participants to study the Substitution Explanation:
- They asked those with the verb "smashed" if they saw any broken glass
- The majority said yes they saw glass, when there wasn't any
- This suggests the verb altered their memory of the incident
192
What is Post-Event Discussion?
When there is more than 1 witness to an event, they might discuss what they saw with each other
This might affect accuracy of EWT
193
What is Memory Contamination?
Witnesses combine false (mis) information from other witnesses with their own memories, causing their memories to become distorted or altered
194
What is Memory Conformity?
Witnesses may go along with the memories of others as they might want to win their social approval (NSI), or they trust the other witnesses to be right (ISI)
The actual memory is unchanged
195
Who researched Post Event Discussion as Misleading Information Affecting EWT?
Gabbert et al
196
What did Gabbert et al research?
Post Event Discussion as a factor affecting EWT
197
What was Gabbert et al's procedure?
- Matched pairs design
- Each participant watched a video of a girl stealing but from different angles
- Different elements of the robbery were seen from different angles
- The participants discussed what they saw and then individually completed a recall test
A control group was used where there was no Post Event Discussion
198
What did Gabbert et al find?
71% mistakenly recalled aspects they did not see
0% of the control group mistakenly recalled aspects
This suggests PED lowers the accuracy of EWT
199
Evaluate Misleading Information as a Factor Affecting Eye Witness Testimony
Good - Real World Application
- understanding the consequences of misleading information can help change the way the Justice System works
- it can change the way police ask questions, and it can encourage witnesses to not discuss what they saw with anyone until they speak to authorities
- this can improve the way the legal system works, showing a real world application
Bad - It may be different in the real world
- perhaps participants were not heavily invested or impacted by watching videos
- there may have been demand characteristics if they did not care or figured out the aim
- in person, a real witness would pay attention to every detail and how it could affect them, meaning the memories will likely be stronger and more impactful
- this suggests misleading information may not mislead key bits of information when someone is really affected
Good - lab studies are used for high control
- they can be clear of cause and effect
- materials such as questionnaires are standardised
Bad - Ethical issues
- deception
- lack of informed consent
- could have psychological harm due to distressing car accident/robbery
200
What is Anxiety?
An emotional and physical state of arousal
201
What are the 2 parts of Anxiety as a factor affecting EWT?
Negative effects
Positive effects
202
What is the main Negative effect of anxiety on EWT?
The Weapon Focus Effect
203
What is the Weapon Focus Effect?
The presence of a weapon leads to anxiety, and we focus our attention on the weapon as it poses a threat to us
We are likely to have 'tunnel vision' of the weapon so we know where it is going
This reduces recall for other details of the event
204
Who researched the Negative Effects of Anxiety on EWT?
Johnson and Scott
205
What did Johnson and Scott do?
Researched the Weapon Focus Effect as a negative effect of anxiety on EWT
206
What was Johnson and Scott's procedure?
They conducted a lab experiment using 2 independent groups
Participants were told to wait in a reception area until they were called through
A man walked through the different conditions:
1) Low anxiety condition
- The participants heard a conversation from the next room
- There was no weapon
- Shortly after the conversation, a man left holding a pen with greasy hands
2) High anxiety condition
- The participants heard a heater conversation and glass breaking
- A man ran through the reception with bloody hands and a bloody knife
Both groups were shown 50 photographs and were asked to identify the person who left the lab
207
What did Johnson and Scott find?
The low anxiety condition had 49% accurate identification
The high anxiety condition had 33% accurate identification
This supports the weapon focus effect and suggests anxiety negatively affects EWT
208
How can Anxiety have a positive effect on EWT recall?
The fight or flight trigger increases alertness which can improve memory as we are more aware of cues
209
Who researched Anxiety as a Positive Factor Affecting EWT?
Yuille and Cutshaw
210
What did Yuille and Cutshaw research?
Anxiety as a positive effect on EWT
211
What was Yuille and Cutshaw's procedure?
The investigated the effects of anxiety in a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada
21 witnesses saw a shop owner shoot a thief dead, and were interviewed by police straight after
- 13 of them were interviewed by Yuille and Cutshaw 5 months later
- Accuracy was measured in the number of details reported in each account
- The answers were compared to their original interviews
Participants also rated how stressed they felt at the time to measure anxiety
212
What did Yuille and Cutshaw find?
Witnesses with higher rated anxiety were more accurate with their recall
213
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
It is a scale that suggests that performance increases with arousal (anxiety), but only up to a certain point (curvilinear)
- Anxiety helps up to an optimal arousal
- Too much anxiety or too little anxiety might lead to less accurate EWTs
214
Evaluate Anxiety as a Factor Affecting Eye Witness Testimony
Good - research into positive effects has high external validity
- they used a real life incident with real witnesses
- they compared to real police interviews
- it suggests how anxiety works in the real world
Bad - research into positive effects may have had confounding variables
- the second interview was 5 months later, so there might have been post event discussion
- participants may have had anxiety before witnessing the crime
- participants may have experienced greater anxiety in the second interview due to re-living the situation
Bad - research into negative effects may not have tested anxiety
- Johnson and Scott might have just tested people's focus on unusual situations
- Participants might have been surprised rather than scared, making them focus on the knife
- This is supported by researchers who placed random objects in hairdressing salon videos
- They went from high anxiety, low unusualness (scissors), to low anxiety, high unusualness (raw chicken)
- They found Eyewitness accuracy was poorer in high unusualness conditions such as raw chicken and a handgun
- This could suggest the weapon focus effect is actually due to unusualness, an not anxiety, meaning it does not tell us about effects of anxiety on EWT
215
How can we improve the accuracy of EWT?
Use the Cognitive Interview
216
Who suggested the Cognitive Interview?
Fisher and Geiselman
217
What does the Cognitive Interview do?
It is based on psychological insights into how memory works, and it uses this to help eyewitnesses retrieve more information
218
How many techniques are used in the Cognitive Interview?
4
219
What are the 4 techniques used in the Cognitive Interview?
Report Everything
Reinstate the Context
Reverse the Order
Change Perspective
220
What is the Report Everything Technique?
Witnesses are encouraged to recall every detail, even the seemingly meaningless ones as it may trigger other memories by acting as a cue
221
What is the Reinstate the Context Technique?
Witnesses imagine they are back at the crime scene
They are asked for details about the environment, including what they see and smell and what the weather is like (external cues)
They are also asked how they were feeling before and during and after (internal cues)
222
What is the Reverse the Order Technique?
Witnesses recall events in another order to prevent reporting expectations of what must have happened rather than what actually did happen
It prevents dishonesty too
223
What is the Change Perspectives Technique?
Witnesses recall events from another point of view, such as a perpetrator or the victim
This disrupts the effect of expectations from schema and prevents dishonesty
224
What is the development of the Cognitive Interview?
Enhanced Cognitive Interview
225
Who suggested the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
Fisher
226
What does the Enhanced Cognitive Interview do?
It adds social dynamics to the interview
It is focused on the interviewer:
- reducing stress
- minimising distractions
- knowing when to establish and maintain eye contact
227
Evaluate the Cognitive Interview as an improvement of the accuracy of EWT
Bad - Some elements of the CI might be more useful than others
- Research has shown that using a combination of report everything and reinstate the context produced the most effective recall
- This could suggest that the CI is unnecessarily long, which casts doubt on the overall credibility
Good - Research shows it works
- A Meta-Analysis of accurate recall from regular interviews and cognitive interviews found 41% more accuracy from cognitive interviews
- This suggests it works and has good validity
Bad - High cost
- Takes a lot of Police time to train for the Cognitive Interview
- Requires special training
- Takes more time to conduct than a regular interview due to the social dynamics
- This has meant many Police Forces have taken a pick and mix approach where they use the easiest elements
- This therefore means that not only is it time consuming, but it is also not standardised
- This suggests there might be low external validity
