memory

Question 1

coding, capacity and duration of memory

research into coding
* who
* harder to recall from stm
* harder to recall from ltm

Answer 1

• alan baddeley
• acoustically similar
• semantically similar

Question 2

coding, capicity and duration of memory

research on duration of stm
* who
* procedure
* result
* shows..

Answer 2

• peterson and peterson
• 24 students, 8 trials, given trigram and a 3 didget number, count backwards, recall letters
• after 7 seconds only about half were correct
• stm has a short duration

Question 3

coding, capacity and duration of memory

research on duration of LTM
* who
* process
* result
* shows..

Answer 3

• bahrick
• photo recognition test from year book or active recall of names from graduating class
• 90% acurate photo recognition after 15 years, 60% acurate active recall
• LTM is very long

Question 4

coding, capacity and duration of memory

research into capacity

* who
* procedure
* results
* shows..

Answer 4

• jacobs/miller
• the number of didgets you can recall
• mean didget span 7.3, miller said 7+-2
• people can recall more imformation by chunking

Question 5

explanations for forgetting: interference

types of interference

Answer 5

• proactive- when an older memory interferes with a new one
• retroactive- when a new memory interferes with an old memory

Question 6

explanations for forgetting: interference

explanations of the effect of similarity

Answer 6

• pi- makes new similar information difficult to store
• ri- new imformation overwrites old similar information due to similarity.

Question 7

explanation for forgetting: interference

real world interference

* who
* procedure
* result
* increases … of theory

Answer 7

• Baddeley and Hitch
• asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams played throughout the season.
• players who played the most games struggled the most
• validity

Question 8

explanations for forgetting: interference

counterpoint to real-world interference

Answer 8

conditions necessary for interference are rare, unlike lab studies where high degree of control can be created in order to create ideal conditions for interference.

Question 9

explanations for forgetting: interference

interference and cues

• who
• procedure
• results
• shows

* interfernce can be overcome by..

Answer 9

• temporary, cues
• tulvint and pstoka
• lists of words organised in to categories, one list at a time, at the end given a cues recall test
• recall averaged 70% for the first list, then as proactive interference occured became worse (given more lists), then rose back to 70 % given a cues recall test
• interference causes temporary loss to material in ltm

Question 10

explanations for forgetting: interference

support from drug studies

• procedure
• results
• shows

* who

Answer 10

• coenen and van Luijelar (1997)
• gave list of words to later recall
• words learnt under the influence of diazepam was poor recall a week later in compasrison to placebo group. however words learnt before the drug later recall was better than placebo (drug prevents information from reaching part of brain)
• forgetting can be due to interference, less interference, less forgetting

Question 11

explanations for forgetting: interference

validity issues with interference theory

Answer 11

most studies showing interference are lab based so researchers can control variables, showing a clear link between interference and memories.however artificial materials and unrealistic procedures is not very acurate to real life.

Question 12

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

what is retrieval failure

Answer 12

• due to the absence/insufficiency of cues
• when information is initially placed in memory associated cues are stored at the same time
• if these cues are not available at the time of recall it may appear to habe forgotten information when really the memories cannot be accessed- retrieval failure.

Question 13

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

encoding specificity principle

* who
* procedure
* types

Answer 13

• endel tulving (1983)
• pattern called esp, stating that a clue has to be both present at encoding (when we learn it) and present at retrieval.
• if cues at encoding and retrieval are different forgetting occurs
• context dependant forgetting (external) and state-dependant forgetting (internal)

Question 14

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

research on context dependent forgetting

* procedure
* findings and conclusions

Answer 14

• duncan godden and alan baddeley (1975)
• variations of learning on land/underwater and recalling words on land/underwater
• accuarate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions, different external cues at learning and recall led to retrieval failure

Question 15

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

research on state dependant forgetting

* procedure
* findings and conclusions

Answer 15

• sara carter and helen cassaday (1998)
• variations of learning words on antihistamines/not and recalling on antihistamines/not
• where the internal state at learning and recall was different there was more forgetting.

Question 16

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

strength of theory

Answer 16

• backed up by real world applications.
• e.g. leaving a room to find something, forgetting what to find so going back into room to remember.

Question 17

explanations for forgetting: retrieval

2. strenth of theory

Answer 17

• research supports
• godden and badeley
• carter and cassaday

Question 18

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

weaknesses of the context dependent theory

Answer 18

• contexts would have to be very different for effects to be seen

Question 19

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

why is retrieval failure a limited explanation for forgetting

Answer 19

depends on the type of memory being tested, when recognition rather than just recall was tested the answers were the same under all 4 conditions.

Question 20

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

probelms with the ESP

Answer 20

it isnt possible to establish whether a cue has been encoded or not

Question 21

explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

chewing gum method

• procedure

* who

Answer 21

• jess baker 2004
• 4 groups, gum gum, gum no gum , no gum gum, no gum no gum
• lear a list of 15 words in two minutes
• had to recall immediately and then 24 hours later
• 11 gum gum
• 8 gum no gum
• 7 no gum gum
• 8.8 no gum no gum

Question 22

how is stm mostly stored

Answer 22

acoustically

Question 23

how is ltm mostly stored

Answer 23

semantically

Question 24

the multi-store of memory

sensory register

Answer 24

• stimulus from the environment passes into sensory register
• sensory register is made up of several registers for each sense
• coded then for visual as iconic memory and for sound as echoic
• duration of the SR is very brief- less than 0.5 seconds
• SR has a very high capacity

Question 25

# the multi-store model of memory how does information pass from the stm store to the ltm store?

Answer 25

prolonged rehearsal

Question 26

# the multi-store model of memory how to recall information from ltm

Answer 26

transferred back into stm through retrieval

Question 27

# types of long term memory what are the three types of LTM

Answer 27

* episodic * semantic * procedural

Question 28

# types of long term memory what is episodic memory

Answer 28

* the recall of events from our lives * time stamped, remember when they happened with what happened * memory of a single episode will include several elements such as people, place, objects and behaviours * you have to make a concious effort to recall these, aware you are searching your memory

Question 29

# types of long term memory what is semantic memory

Answer 29

* the recall of facts and shared knowledge of the world * not time-stamped or personal, but purely factual * tulving says it is less vunerable to distortion and forgetting

Question 30

# types of long term memory what is procedural memory

Answer 30

* the memory of actions and skills * can recall without conscious awareness/effort * automatic through practice * difficult to explain to others

Question 31

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony factors

Answer 31

* misleading information- * leading question * post-event discussion

Question 32

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony what is misleading information

Answer 32

incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after an event

Question 33

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony what is a leading question

Answer 33

a question, because of the way its phrases, suggests a specific answer

Question 35

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony what is post-event discussion

Answer 35

when there is more than one witness to an event and they discuss what they have seen- influencing recall of event.

Question 36

# misleading information research research on leading questions | * who * procedure * findings

Answer 36

* loftus and palmer (1974) * 45 students watch clip of car accident * critical question asked about how fast car was travelling but each 5 groups were given different verbs, hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed * contacted- 31.8 mph, smashed- 40.5 * leading question biased participants answer

Question 37

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony loftus and palmers 2nd experiment

Answer 37

* substituion explanation * proposes idea that wording changes memory of clip * smashes more likely to report seeing glass (there was none)

Question 38

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony why do leading questions effect ewt

Answer 38

* no real effect on the memory * just influences how they decide to answer it

Question 39

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony research on post-event discussion | * what * procedure * findings

Answer 39

* fiona gabbert et al (2003) * pairs watched same crime from different POVs * disscussed after * 71% contaminated * 0% in control group

Question 40

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony why does post event discussion affect EWT

Answer 40

* memory contamination - testimonies become altered or distorted - combine misinformation with their own memories * memory conformity - actual memory is changed - go along with eachother, to win social approval/ genuinely believe them

Question 41

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony evaluation: real world application | * consequences on inaccurate EWT in real-world

Answer 41

* loftus believes way they phrase their questions has a distorting effect * police need to be careful when interviewing eyewitnesses * psychologists sometimes act as witnesses in court to explain limits of EWT to juries to prevent faulty convictions due to EWT

Question 42

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony evaluation: weaknesses of loftus and palmers experiment

Answer 42

* watched in a lab rather than real life- less stressful * what they remember has more importance in real world, response in research not important- less motivated to be accurate * shows l and p too pessimistic

Question 43

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony limitation of substitution

Answer 43

* EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event than others * rachel Sutherland and Harlene Hayne showed participants a video clip * their results revealed that recall was more accurate for central details than peripheral ones * reveals that the memory isnt changed, as central detaails survived

Question 44

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony evaluation: evidence challenging memory conformity, supporting contamination

Answer 44

* Elin skagerberg and daniel wright (2008) * showed participants film clip of mugger * one with dark one with light brown hair * their results blended, not conformed

Question 45

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony how can effects of PED be reduced

Answer 45

* warning them to forget information of co witness

Question 46

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety the negative effect | * procedure * findings

Answer 46

* craig johnson and william scott (1976) * participants believed it was a lab study * low and high anxiety conditions * low: heard casual conversation nextdoor, a man then walked out holding a pen with grease on hs hands * high: heard heated conversation next door, breaking glass, man walked out with a bloody knife * found that out of 50 men 49% could identify in low, only 33% in high * tunnel theory: people have enhanced memory for central events

Question 47

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety the positive effect | how can recall be improved by anxiety

Answer 47

* anxiety through physiological arousal * trigers a fight or flight response * increased alertness * memory of event improved/ more aware of cues

Question 47

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety the negative effect | * procedure * findings

Answer 47

* john yuille and judith cutshall (1986) * 21 witnesses to vancouver shooting in gun shop, 13 participants * shop owner shot dead theif * interviewed 4-5 months after, accuracy based on how many details they remembered * stress on 7 point scale + if they have experienced emotional problems since event * found all recall was accurate * high anxiety = 88% accurate * low anxiety = 75% * shows anxiety doesnt have detrimental impacts/ can even enhance memory

Question 48

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety contradictory findings | * who * relationship between emotional arousal and performance/recall

Answer 48

* robert yerkes and john dodson (1908) * an inverted U

Question 49

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety contradictory findings | * who * how does he explain inverted U

Answer 49

* kenneth deffenbacher (1983) * low or high anxiety/arousal = low recall * medium anxiety= high recall (before optimum is reached)

Question 50

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety evaluation: unusualness not anxiety | * what * who * procedure * shows...

Answer 50

* may have focussed on weapon because surprised, not scared * kerri pickel (1998) hair salon video * different items held: scissors, handgun, raw chicken, wallet * poor recall in unusual situations * shows weapon focus is due to unusualness not anxiety

Question 51

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety evaluation: support for negative effects | * who * supports... * procedure * shows...

Answer 51

* Tim valentine and jan mesout * supports research on weapon focus * used heartbeat (objective measure) , divided participants into low and high anxiety groups, asked about details of actor in londons dungeons, recall was low- anxiety has an effect * shows high levels of anxiety has negative impact on eyewitness recall

Question 52

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety evaluation: support for positive effects | * who * procedure * findings

Answer 52

* christianson and hubinette * interviewed 58 witnesses to bank robbery in swansea, recall of details was about 75% accurate across all, directly or indirectly involved * doesnt reduce accuracy of recall, may even enhance

Question 53

# factors effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety evaluation: probelms with christianson and huninettes study

Answer 53

interviewed 4-15 months after, time for other factors to impact, e.g post event discussion

Question 54

# coding, capacity and duration of memory evaluation: advantages and disadvantages of baddeleys research into capacity

Answer 54

* identified a clear difference between two memory stores * used artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material- doesnt tell us much about how memory is coded in everday life

Question 55

# coding, capacity and duration of memory evaluation: advantages and disadvantages of jacobs/ millers research

Answer 55

* jacobs study has proved replicable * other research has shown we can remember 4 chunks of information

Question 56

# coding, capacity and duration of memory evaluation: limitation of the petersons study, advantage of bahricks study

Answer 56

* uses artificial stimuli: lacks external validity * meaningful- high external validity

Question 57

# the multi-store model of memory evaluation:support showing stm and ltm are different

Answer 57

baddeley (1966) found out we mix up acoustically similar words when using stm, but semantically similar words when using ltm

Question 58

# the multi-store model of memory evaluation: why may msm not be a valid model of how memory works in every day life

Answer 58

uses didgets, letters, words, consonant syllables (no meaning) instead of relevant material- e.g. faces, places, names

Question 59

# the multi-store model of memory evaluatation: limitation of MSM concerning STM

Answer 59

KF (amnesia) could recall didgets he read to himself but not when read to himself. suggests msm is wrong, claiming there is just one stm store

Question 60

# the multi-store model of memory evaluation: limitation of the msm concerning prolonged rehearsal

Answer 60

* msm states amount of rehearsal is what causes it to transfer to LTM * however the type is more relevant * elaborative rehearsal- link imformation to existing knowledge

Question 61

# types of LTM evaluation: clinical evidence

Answer 61

* HM and clive wearing * episodic memory impaired from brain damage * procedural and semantic still intact * supports tulvings theory that LTM has seperate stores

Question 62

# types of LTM evaluation: problems with clinical studies into ltm

Answer 62

* lack of control variables * brain injury unexpected- no control of what happened before or during or their memory before damage * limits what clinical studies can tell us about different types of ltm

Question 63

# types of ltm evaluation: conflicting neuroimaging evidence | * who * procedure * so..

Answer 63

* buckner and peterson * semantic on left episodic on right of prefrontal cortex * tulvings research oposes this * challenges neurophysiological evidence

Question 64

# types of ltm evaluation: strenght in real world application

Answer 64

* helps psychologists to help with problems * e.g training to improve episodic memory in elderly people