Memory

Question 1

Define Sensation?

Answer 1

the detection (through senses) and processing of stimuli from the external environment

Question 2

What are the 3 subtypes to sensation and define?

Answer 2

Reception- detecting the physical stimuli (energy) via the sensory neurons
Transduction- process of converting the stimuli energy into electrochemical energy via receptor cells
Transmission- transfer of this energy from the receptor cells via the optic nerve to the brain

Question 3

Define Attention?

Answer 3

process of focusing on specific sensory stimuli in the environment and ignoring others

Question 4

What are the 2 types of Attention?

Answer 4

Divided Attention- when attention is distributed so that 2 or more tasks are performed/ sources of information are attended to at the same time
Selective Attention- there is full focus on a chosen and specific stimuli while ignoring the others

Question 5

What Case Study took place under Selective Attention and explain it?

Answer 5

Cocktail party Effect (Colin Cherry, 1953)

Question 6

Which subtype of attention can be divided into 3 categories and what are those?

Answer 6

Divided attention:
- Task Familiarity- divided attention is more successful when conscious effort to one or both tasks is low
- Task Difficulty- very complex activities tend to make divided attention less effective
- Task Similarity- similar tasks with similar cognitive requirements may interfere with each other

Question 7

Define Cognition?

Answer 7

How we receive, use, understand and recall information in order to solve problems and make decisions

Question 8

Define Perception?

Answer 8

Process where the brain organises and assigns meaning to the stimuli taken in during sensation

Question 9

What are the 3 components to Perception?

Answer 9

• Selection- filtering of stimuli, so important information is attended to and unimportant isn’t
• Organisation- grouping of selected features of stimuli to form a meaningful whole
• Interpretation- the making of meaning of the meaningful wholes

Question 10

As perception occurs, 2 different pathways can be taken which are?

Answer 10

• Bottom up processing- when you use salient (certain information paid attention to) sensory information to build a bigger picture of what might be happening to you
• Top down processing- occurs when prior knowledge and expectations drive your interpretations

Question 11

Who and when created the Multi-Store Model of Memory theory and what are the stages proposed?

Answer 11

Atkinson and Shriffin (1968)- 3 stages:
- Sensory Register- information stored for only a few second
- Short-term (STM)- information you are aware of and is stored for short periods of time unless reviewed (holds information you are constantly paying attention to at the time)
- Long-term (LTM)- storage of potentially unlimited information which may last for the lifetime

Question 12

Explain the duration, capacity, encoding of Sensory Register.

Answer 12

• Duration- only holds information very briefly (important information may be passed to LTM)
• Capacity- all incoming sensory information (not yet encoded) is stored in memory register
• Encoding- the information is encoded based on physical properties (sound) and the register used depends on the sense (hearing)-> thought to have seperate sensory register for each 4 senses

Question 13

What are the factors of Sensory Register?

Answer 13

• Iconic Encoding- visual information (shape, colour) is stored as an icon (image) for a short period of time -> encoding begins and shorter duration is adaptive (0.2-0.4 seconds then fades)
• Echoic Encoding- aural information (tone, melody) is usually held for longer, allows us to process spoken words, longer duration is adaptive to allow us to process meaning-> encoding and storage begins (3-4 seconds)

Question 14

Explain the duration, capacity, encoding of STM

Answer 14

• Duration- memory begins to fade after 12 seconds and is severely reduced by 18 seconds but remains for 30 seconds unless reviewed (limited)
  Capacity- 5 to 9 pieces of information (7 plus or minus 2)
  Encoding- involves a transient representation of the information, usually based on sensory attributes (looking at a picture and remembering features immediately after (visual encoding))

Question 15

What are the factors of STM?

Answer 15

• Rehearsal- process of repeating information to remember it (allows information to stay in STM for longer and transfer it to LTM), consists of maintenance rehearsal- repeating information to retain it for slightly longer and elaborative rehearsal- actively processing and making associations with material in LTM to retain it
• Chunking- organising a large number of similar pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful clusters

Question 16

Explain the duration, capacity, encoding of LTM

Answer 16

• Duration- greater then 30 seconds to lifelong
• Capacity- potentially unlimited (large volumes of information stored in LTM may make retrieval difficult)
• Encoding- physical changes in neurons and neural networks occur when information moves from STM to LTM, hence relative permanence (encoding seems mainly based on semantics (meaning) and retrieval occurs by associations

Question 17

What are the types of LTM?

Answer 17

• Explicit (Declarative) memory- the storage of the ‘what’; facts and events you recall
  -> Semantic Memory-knowledge of facts and information about the world, based on understanding and interpreting spoken/written material and forming mental representation
  -> Episodic Memory- interpretations of personally experienced events, based on feelings and sensations
• Implicit Memory- memory that doesn’t require conscious or intentional retrieval and may be difficult to explain to another person
  -> Procedural- storage of the ‘How to’, the way you perform a motor action or skill which has already been learned (touch typing)

Question 18

Criticisms of Mutli-Store Model

Answer 18

• the STM is over reliant on rehearsal
• Some case studied disprove the theoretical flow of information
• Experiments used as supporting evidence are not ecologically valid

Question 19

What and Who proposed the Working Memory Model

Answer 19

Braddley and Hitch (1974) proposed 3 constructs in Working Memory- information which can be held and manipulated (involved in problem solving), STM considered component of WM
- Central Executive- organises information and manages the slave systems
- Slave Systems- works to store or maintain information short term (visuo-spatial sketchpad and Phonological Loop)

Question 20

Explain the Central Executive?

Answer 20

• the basis of the WM
• responsible for cognitive tasks e.g., mental maths
• controls our attentions and directs it appropriately (i.e.., information to slave systems)
  -> inhibition- screens out unimportant information
  -> switching- changes attention from one item to the next
  -> updating- modifies information from LTM before returning it to LTM

Question 21

Explain the Slave Systems?

Answer 21

Visuospatial sketchpad- stores and processes visual and spatial information (inner eye)
- helps us navigate through space (e.g., picturing where objects are so we don’t run into them)
- constructs and manipulates visual imagery (colour, pattern) and mentally maps information (picturing what the room would like with furnitures rearranged)
Phonological Loop- stores and processes phonological information (language) and silently rehearses it, two parts:
-> phonological store (inner ear)- involved in understanding speech (holds information in the form of spoken words for 1-2 seconds)
-> Articulatory control process (inner voice)- involved in producing speech

Question 22

What did Braddley propose in 2000?

Answer 22

A third slave system (not supported by research) called episodic buffer- backs up information (holds it longer then expected) and links together the different domains (and LTM) so that the information can be integrated logically across time

Question 23

What are the Working Memory Crticisms?

Answer 23

While the model is supported by research and applicable to more situations then the Multi-Store Model, criticisms include:
-> the central executive is not well understood
-> the model doesn’t explain all aspects of memory (sensory and LTM)
-> doesn’t explain the effect of practice and time on memory

Question 24

What is Memory and what are the 3 processes in Model of Memory?

Answer 24

Memory- active information processing system that receives, stores and organises information
-> Encoding- converting sensory information into a form which can be neurologically processed and stored in memory (determines ability of information to be stored and retrieved)
-> Storage- retaining the encoded information for varying lengths of time, includes duration and capacity
-> Retrieval- process of recovering stored information when required (if cannot occur, even with appropriate prompts then memory doesn’t exist)

Question 25

What are the brain Structures involved in Memory

Answer 25

Cerebellum, Hippocampus, Amygdala

Question 26

Explain the role of the Cerebellum in Memory

Answer 26

It coordinates fine motor movements (writing and maintaining posture) and strong role in learned muscle movement (dancing) -> important in encoding and temporary storage of implicit memories (procedural- the 'how to') e.g., dancing -> involved in motor learning -> Damage to the cerebellum may not completely stop movements but they will likely become uncoordinated and jerky -> important role in both encoding and storing simple reflexes (forget reflex of blinking when smoke is blown in eyes if damaged)

Question 27

Explain the role of the Hippocampus in Memory

Answer 27

-> receives input from many association area in the brain and puts together all the input to form a cohesive whole memory (functions in forming new declarative (explicit) memories) ->plays a role in turning STM into LTM so is critical for memory consolidation- when the memory is gradually transferred back into the cerebral cortex which allows more permanent storage, now with linkages to other components of memory -> important in formation and retrieval of spatial memory ('Place cells' in the right hippocampus become activated when passing through a location which helps form a 'mental map' of the location

Question 28

What case study defined the role of the hippocampus and explain

Answer 28

Henry Molaison

Question 29

Explain the role of the Amygdala in Memory

Answer 29

It contributes to the formation of memories with strong emotional responses involved (receives sensory input and integrates them) ->sections connected to amygdala include thalamus (sends sensory input and associated with threat directly) and cerebral cortex (makes slower judgements about real danger process) ->when stimulated by these inputs, causes release of hormones and neurotransmitters which creates a quick response (important to survival) -> damage to amygdala results in inappropriate fear response (Implicit Memory)

Question 30

What are the methods of Remembering?

Answer 30

Recall- reproduction of information stored in memory, 3 types: -> free recall- involves minimal cues in order to retrieve in no particular order -> serial recall- reproducing information in the order it is learned -> cued recall- reproducing information with the aid of prompts to help with retrieval Recognition- involves choosing the correct information from a number of options Relearning- learning information again, when it's previously stored in LTM

Question 31

What case study falls under repetition and explain it.

Answer 31

Ebbinghuse and the forgetting curve

Question 32

What is Forgetting and What are the types?

Answer 32

Forgetting- seen as a failure to retrieve previously stored information or failure to use the information effectively -> Retrieval Failure ->Interference ->Motivated Forgetting ->Decay Theory

Question 33

Explain the types of Forgetting

Answer 33

Retrieval Failure- inability to retrieve a certain piece of information -> theory states that you require retrieval cues and if you don't use the cues correctly for then forgetting occurs (Retrieval Failure Theory) ->Two types of cues: Context-dependent (aspects of the external environment in which the information was first encoded) or State-dependent (aspects of the internal environment (inner thoughts and feelings instead)) Interference- where retrieval of information is difficult because of the presence of similar but competing information, information gets 'mixed up' -> retroactive interference- new information interferes retroactively with old information -> Proactive interference- old information interferes with learning of new information Motivated Forgetting- inability to retrieve information because there is an advantage to forget it (e.g, trauma) Decay Theory- simple fading of memory overtime, if the newly learnt information isn't revisited to maintain it then it will fade overtime

Question 34

What and Who proposed the Level of Processing Model of Memory

Answer 34

Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that memory is encoded along a continuum related to how easily it is retrieved (deeper processing = easier retrieval)

Question 35

Define Level of Processing and the levels based on the type of encoding used

Answer 35

Level of Processing- refers to the level of meaning of the knowledge and the number of associations with other previous knowledge - Shallow processing- lower level that relies on maintenance rehearsal and retains information in the shorter term, two types of encoding: -> Structural encoding- based on appearance or physical features of something (short or long word? All capitals?) -> Phonetic Encoding- based on the sound of something (what does it rhyme with?) - Deep Processing- higher level that relies on elaborative rehearsal (making links and associations with prior knowledge) and retains information in the LTM -> Semantic Encoding- based on the meaning or understanding of something (e.g., a wheelbarrow has wheels and carrying compartment called burrow, used in gardening)

Question 36

What study fell under the level of processing model, who was it by and what was the aim

Answer 36

Study: Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) -> Aim- to investigate the effect of processing level on recall

Question 37

What was the method used in the Craik and Tulving study

Answer 37

1) 25 paid male and female participants recruited and told they would be participating in a study of perception and reaction speed 2) Presented with a set of 60 words and had to answer on of three types of questions about each (click yes or no) and the time recorded 3) Questions required different levels of processing: -> shallow processing- does the word have a capital letter? -> Deep processing- Would the word fit into this sentence? 4) Then, the participants were presented with a list of 180 words (the original 60 and 120 distractor words) and told to circle the original words they remembered 5) number of correct answers measured

Question 38

What were the findings in the Craik and Tulving study

Answer 38

-> Words where deep processing was required (semantic) were answered correctly more often (65%) than those of shallow processing (structural- 17%, Phonemic-36%)

Question 39

What was the contribution of the Craik and Tulving study

Answer 39

-> Authors concluded that deep processing resulted in elaborative rehearsal and so greater retention of information that shallow processing, which resulted in maintenance rehearsal ->Many experiments followed, most of which confirmed these findings -> clear application in education and learning regarding effective study -> Broadened understanding of memory (not simple storage unit)

Question 40

What was the criticisms/ limitations in the Craik and Tulving study

Answer 40

-> Limited sample size so not representative -> Doesn't explain how deep processing words, and concept of 'depth' is difficult to quantify- said the theory 'describes' rather then 'explains' -> Longer time spent on deep processing tasks may explain greater retention (rather then level of processing)

Question 41

What are the different causes for Memory Loss

Answer 41

-> Degeneration (Alzheimers Disease) -> Trauma (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy) -> Drug induced (Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome)

Question 42

Explain Alzheimers Disease (Degeneration)

Answer 42

Form of Dementia in which neuro-degeneration (detoriation of the nervous system) results in gradual worsening of cognitive functions -> Dementia-the loss of cogntiive function impairing individuals daily funtions -> The detoriation of the brain tissue seen in Alzheimers is due to the death of neurons particularly in the middle temporal lobe including the hippocampus ->Together with the neurotransmitter treatments (monoclonal antibodies targeting the abnormal structures in the brain at the early stages), and medication to relieve symptoms (depression) offers the possibility of slowing down the degenerative process -> Abnormal structures which interfere with functioning and hence causes the death of neurons - Amyloid plaques- fragments of beta amyloid protein (normally cleared away in a healthy brain) which form hard plaques over time - Neurofibrillary tangles- accumulations of insoluble, misfolded tau proteins, forming twisted fibres -> Medications raising the levels of ACh may slow down the progression -> Diagnosis is only definitive after an autopsy, so depends on observation of changes which occur and assessment of cognitive abilities -> Early symptoms are subtle (the disease progresses slowly at first), with STM mostly affected - Include moderate memory loss and confusion (especially recent learning), irritation, trouble with planning and organising, difficult with everyday tasks -> As the disease progresses more quickly, LTM is affected and both episodic and semantic memories are affected - Forgetfulness of recent and long-past events, including identity; negative personality changes, getting lost and depression -> Greatest risk factor is increased age, while minor neuron loss and functional changes is considered a normal part of ageing, the accelerated loss seen in alzheimer’s is not ‘normal’

Question 43

Explain Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) (Trauma)

Answer 43

Emerging brain disorder linked to repeated head traumas e.g., aggressive contact sports -> On autopsy, brain of CTE sufferers demonstrate large accumulations of the misfolded tau protein around blood vessels -> Brain regions affected include the medial temporal lobe, the limbic system and the brainstem -> CTE sufferers often present first in the 20-30 year range, with a number of mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety) and related behaviours (e.g., road rage, self-harm attempts) -> Then, around age 60, memory problems and other cognitive defects appear, along with tremor and the earlier symptoms (thus CTE is often classified as a form of dementia) -> NOTE: traumas do not have to cause loss of consciousness to be dangerous, but a single trauma does not seem to be implicated - hence ‘chronic’ -> No cure, prevention is the obvious aim - wearing protective head gear, changing contact rules in sport

Question 44

Explain Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (drug induced)

Answer 44

A neurological disorder with results from a lack of vitamin B1 (thiamine) -> Thiamine is a water soluble vitamin of the B group, (which must be a regular part of the daily diet) but important in breaking down glucose so when there is not enough thiamine in the body, the brain cannot get enough energy to work correctly -> Syndrome is primarily caused by chronic alcohol abuse, which stop thiamine from being effectively absorbed from the intestine -> WKS can result from thiamine deficiency due to chemotherapy, poor diet, eating disorders and surgery -> The syndrome occurs in two stages: - Wernicke’s encephalopathy- short term neurological disorder involving vision disturbances, loss of coordination and confusion - If untreated, progresses to Korsakoff’s psychosis- a neuropsychiatric dementia involving hallucinations, behaviour changes and memory problems - Memory issues include anterograde amnesia, retroactive amnesia and confabulation (making up stories to ‘fill’ gaps in memory) -> Brain regions affected commonly in WKS include the mamillary bodies, thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebellum -> Early treatment is usually successful in reversing symptoms and stopping progress to the later phases -> Later treatment may stop progression, but damage is much more likely to be permanent -> Treatment includes vitamin B1 and glucose IV treatment for the underlying alcohol abuse disorder