memory Flashcards
(41 cards)
Explain what is meant by the term, ‘capacity.’
This is a measure of how much can be held in memory. To is represented in terms of bits of information, such as number of digits
Explain what is meant by term, ‘coding.’
The way information is changed so that it can be stored in memory. Information enters the brain via the senses. It is then stored in various forms, such as visual codes, acoustic codes, or semantic codes
Explain what is meant by the term, ‘duration.’
A measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available
Define the term, ‘long-term memory.’
Memory for events that have happened in the past. (This lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years). LTM has potentially unlimited duration and capacity and tends to coded semantically
Define the term, ‘short-term memory.’
Memory for immediate events. STM measured in seconds and minutes. limited capacity of 4 items or chunks and tends to be coded acoustically. - ‘working memory.’
Describe a research that has investigated capacity in STM.
- capacity of STM = assessed using a digit span —> Jacobs used this technique to assess STM capacity.
- he found that the average span for digits was 9.3 items and 7.3 for letters.
- Miller wrote article, ‘the magic number seven plus or minus two.’ —> concluded span of immediate memory is seven items - ppl can count seven dots flashed on a screen but not many more
- people can recall five words/letters - we chunk things together and then remember more
Evaluate the research the investigated the capacity of STM.
P: one criticism of research investigated STM is that Miller’s original findings have not been replicated.
E: Cowan reviewed variety of studies on the capacity of STM and concluded STM likely to be limited to 4 chunks
—> research on capacity of STM for visual info + 4 items was about the limit
E: this means that the lower end of Miller’s range is more appropriate
L: This suggests that STM may not be as extensive as was thought
P: strength - size of the chunk affects how many chunks you can remember
E: researchers found that people has a shorter memory span for larger chunks (8 word phrases) than smaller chunks, such as one-syllable words
E/L: This continues to support the view that STM has a limited capacity and refines our understanding.
Describe research that has investigated the duration of STM
- Peterson and Peterson studied duration of STM, using 24 students - each ppt tested over 8 trials.
- they were asked to recall the consonant syllable after retention interval of 3,6,9,12,15 secs. During retention interval, they count backwards from their 3 digit number.
- ppts were 90% correct over 3 seconds, 20% correct after 9secs + 2% correct after 18secs - so short duration
Describe research that investigated the duration of LTM
- Bahrick tested 400 people on their memory of classmates —> photo-recognition test consisted of 50 photos, some of participants high-school yearbook.
- free recall test : ppts asked to list names they could remember of those in graduating class
- ppts tested within 15 years of graduation = 90% accurate in identifying faces.
- 48 years = 70%
- free recall test = 60% accurate after 15 years, dropping 30% after 48 years
Evaluate research the duration of STM.
P: a criticism of Peterson’s study is that it did not actually measure out what it is set out to measure
E: in peterson’s study: pts counting the numbers in their STM and this may displace or ‘overwrite’ the syllables to be remembered.
E: researchers used auditory tones instead of numbers so displacement wouldn’t occur and found that the duration of STM was longer
L: this suggests that forgetting in the study was due to displacement rather than decay.
Evaluate research into the duration of LTM.
P: bahrick’s researched used 400 American uni graduates and therefore lacks population validity.
E: psychologists unable to generalise the results of Bahrick’s research to other populations, for example = students from UK/europe.
E: as a result, we unable to conclude whether other populations would demonstrate the same ability to recall name and faces
P: it could be argued that Bahrick’s study has high levels of ecological validity as the study used in real life memories
E: participants recalled real life information by matching pictures of classmates with their names.
E: these results reflect our memory for real-life events + can be applied to everyday memory
Describe research that investigated coding in memory
- following words acoustically similar but semantically different: can, cab, cad. Following words are the opposite: semantically similar but acoustically different: great, larger, long
- Baddeley used word lists like those above to test the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on STM and LTM. He found participants had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM, but semantically similar words posed little problem for STMs but led to muddled LTMS.
- STM is largely encoded acoustically but LTM encoded semantically
Evaluate the research into coding in memory
P: some experiments shown visual codes used in STM
E: researchers found that participants used visual coding in STM if were given visual task and prevented from doing any verbal rehearsal in retention interval before performing visual task
E: normally, ‘translate’ visual images into verbal codes in STM but ppts used visual codes + other researchers: STM sometimes uses semantic code
L: this suggests that STM is not exclusively acoustic
P: in general, LTM appears to be semantic but not always
E: evidence showed that long-term recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories, and researchers found evidence of acoustic coding in LTM
E: therefore, it seems that coding in LTM is not simply semantic but can vary according to circumstances
Briefly explain what is meant by the multi-store model in memory
- an explanation of memory based on 3 separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores
Outline the multi-store model of memory
- sensory register = information is held at each of the senses - eyes, ears, nose, fingers, tongue, and corresponding areas of the brain. Capacity is large - sensory register constantly receiving info, but most of this receives no attention and remains in sensory register for brief duration (milliseconds)
- attention = if person’s attention focused on one of sensory stores, then data is transferred to STM.
- STM = information held in STM so can be used for immediate tasks —> limited duration (30 secs) + limited capacity 7-9 items as info will disappear from STM if new info enters ‘displacing the info.’
- maintenance rehearsal = repetition keeps info in STM but such depiction will create long term memory —> Atkinson and shifting proposed direct rs between rehearsal in stm and stength of LTM
- LTM = unlimited capacity, duration up to a lifetime. Retrieval = process of getting info from LTM involves info passing back through STM.
Explain the strength of the multi-store model of memory
P: controlled lab studies on capacity, duration and coding that support the existence of a separate of short and long term store, which is the basis of the MSM.
E: studies using brain scanning techniques have demonstrated that there’s a difference between STM and LTM.
E: other evidence found prefrontal cortex is active during STM but not lTM tasks + squire used brains canning and found hippocampus is active when LTM engaged.
L: this evidence provides strong support for the MSM.
C: Counterargument = issue of ecological validity - despite providing valuable insights into brain regions involved in memory processes —> involve artificial tasks or controlled environments that don’t reflect how memory operates in real life settings —> not accurately represent how hippocampus functions during everyday tasks —> can’t generalise to real world memory.
Explain one criticism of the multi-store model of memory
P: the MSM suggests that both STM and LTM are single ‘unitary’ stores but, research does not support this.
E: the working memory model and supporting research shows the working memory (STM) is divided into a number of qualitatively different stores. (Not a difference in terms of capacity and duration) but this also true for LTM.
E: research shows there are a number of qualitatively different kinds of LTM and each behaves differently. For example, maintenance rehearsal can explain long-term storage in semantic memory but doesn’t explain long-term episodic memories
L: this suggests that the MSM may be overly simplistic
Explain another strength of the multi-store model of memory
P: psychologists have also shown that different areas of the brain are involved in STM and LTM from their case studies of individuals with brain damage
E: one case involved a man ‘HM’, his brain damage was caused by an operation to remove the hippocampus from both sides of his brain to reduce the severe epilepsy he had suffered.
E: HM’s personality and intellect remained intact but he could not form new LTMs, although he was able to retrieve information from before his surgery.
L: this provides support for the MSM’s notion of separate stores, as HM was unable to transfer information from his STM and LTM, but he was able to retrieve information from before his surgery.
C: Counterargument = studies like HM = evidence might not apply to everyone as relying on case studies risk overgeneralising from a small sample size, results may not reflect the experiences of typical individuals with no neurological damage —> therefore while case studies can provide valuable insights, they not sufficient on their own to support a theory like the MSM.
Briefly explain what is meant by the working memory model
- an explanation of the memory used when working on a task. Each store is qualitative different.
Describe the role of the central executive in the working memory model
- central executive = monitors and coordinates all other mental functions in working memory. —> limited capacity
Describe the role of phonological loop in the working model memory
- codes speech sounds in working memory
- Baddeley subdivided this group:
—> processes speech-based info preserving its order within phonological store which acts like an ‘inner ear’
—> the articulatory process (inner voice) is linked to speech production and used to rehearse and store verbal info from phonological through form of maintenance rehearsal.
- limited capacity = 2 secs —> confusions often occur with similar sounding words as its an acoustic store
Describe the role of the visual-spatial sketchpad inn the working memory model
- codes visual information in terms of separate objects as well as the arrangement of theses objects in one’s visual field
- logie: divided into:
—> visual cache: stores information about visual items (form/colour)
—> inner scribe: stores arrangement of objects in visual field
Describe the role of the episodic buffer in the working memory model (2000)
- receives input from many sources, temporarily stores this information, and then integrates it in order to construct a mental episodic of what’s being experienced
- limited capacity and maintains time-sequencing recording events as they happen and transferring this info into LTM.
Explain the strength of the working memory model. Include a counterargument with this.
P: there is studies of individuals with brain damage also support the WMM.
E: Researchers studied a man called KF whose short term forgetting of auditory info was greater than that of visual stimuli + auditory problems limited to verbal materials
E: This means that his brain damage seemed to be restricted to the phonological loop + another patient, LH - performed best on spatial tasks than those involving visual imagery
L: supports the idea of separate visual + spatial systems, as suggested by the WMM
COUNTERARGUMENT:
- problems with using evidence from case studies as individuals may have other difficulties such as paying attention - underperforming to certain tasks —> unique and cannot be generalised to population.
