Memory

Question 1

What is coding?

Answer 1

The process of converting information between different forms

Question 2

Who did research on coding?

Answer 2

Baddeley (1966)

Question 3

Describe research on coding

Answer 3

AB gave different list of words to 4 groups of ppts to rember:
acoustically similar
acoustically dissimilar
semantically similar
semantically dissimilar
ppts were shown the original words and asked to recall them in the correct order

Question 4

What were the findings of the research on coding?

Answer 4

When they did the task immediately, recalling from STM, they tended to do worse with acoustically similar words. When they recalled the word list after 20 minutes, recalling from LTM, they did worse with the semantically similarly words.
These findings suggest that info is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM

Question 5

What is capacity?

Answer 5

the amount of information that can be held in a memory store.

Question 6

Who researched capacity?

Answer 6

Joseph Jacobs (1887)

Question 7

Describe research on capacity

Answer 7

Jacobs determined capacity by measuring digit span. For example, the researcher reads out 4 digits and the ppts recalls these out loud in the correct order. If this is correct the research reads out 5 digits and so on until the ppts cannot recall the order correctly. This indicates the individuals digit span

Question 8

What are the findings of research on capacity?

Answer 8

Means span for digits across all ppts was 9.3 items. The mean span for letters was 7.3

Question 9

What did George Miller suggest?

Answer 9

He made observations of everyday practise. He noted that things tend to come in sevens, and thought the capacity for STM was 7 plus or minus 2. He also noted that people can recall five words just as easily as five letters. We do this by chunking-grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks.

Question 10

What is duration?

Answer 10

The lengnth of time info can be held in memory.

Question 11

Who did research on the duration of STM?

Answer 11

Peterson & peterson

Question 12

Describe research on the duration of STM

Answer 12

24 students, 8 trails. On each trial students were given a consonant syllable. to remeber. They were given a 3 digit number to count backwarxs from untl told to stop, to prevent any mental rehearsal. On each trial they would stop at varying periods of time: 3, 6, 9, 12,15 or 18 seconds (the retention interval).

Question 13

Who tested the duration of LTM?

Answer 13

Harry Bahrick et al. (1975)

Question 13

What were the findings of duration of STM research?

Answer 13

After 3 seconds, average recall was 80%. After 18secs was 3%. This suggest duration of STM to be about 18 secs, unless we engage in verbal reharsal.

Question 14

Describe research into the duration of LTM

Answer 14

392 American participants betwee4n aged 17-74. They tested their recall using their school yearbooks, including photo-regonision test and a free recall test of names.

Question 15

What were the findings of duration of LTM research

Answer 15

Ppts tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition. After 48%, declined to 70%. This shows that the LTM may last up to a lifetime for some material.

Question 16

The multi-store model (A01)

Answer 16

The multi-store model is a nomothetic theory proposed by antikson & shiffirn as an explanation for how infomation flows through the memory system. The model suggests that memory is made up of three stores, linked by processing.

Question 17

Describe the sensory register (AO1)

Answer 17

All stimuli from the environment pass into the sensory register. This part of the memory comprises of several registers (sensory memory stores), one for each of our senses. Coding in each store is modality-specific. For example, the store coding for visual info is iconic memory and the store coding acoustically is echoic memory. The duration of sr is very brief, less then half a second. However, it has a very large capacity-for example there are over one hundred million cells in one eye, each storing data.
Information passes further into the memory system only if you pay attention to it.

Question 18

Describe STM (MSM) AO1

Answer 18

Infomation in STM is coded mainly acoustically, and lasts about 18 seconds, unless it is rehearsed, so STM is more of a temporary store. STM is a limited-capacity store, as it can only contain a cefrtain amount of ‘things’ before forgetting occurs, and this is believed to be 7 +-2. Maintance reheseal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep the infomation in our STMs as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM. If not, itll be forgetten.

Question 19

Describe LTM (MSM) AO1

Answer 19

This is the potentially permeant memory store for info that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. LTM is coded semantically, and its duration my by up to a lifetime. The capacity of LTM is thought to be pratical unlimited. According to the MSM, when we want to recall info from LTM, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrival.

Question 20

Multistore model (AO3)

Answer 20

A key strength of the Multi-Store Model (MSM) is its empirical support from clinical case studies, such as that of Clive Wearing, which not only demonstrate the separation of Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM) but also highlight the critical role of the maintenance rehearsal loop. Wearing’s condition, caused by damage to his hippocampus from a viral infection, prevents the transfer of information from STM to LTM. His STM span lasts only 7–10 seconds, indicating that without the ability to engage in rehearsal, memories cannot consolidate into LTM. This directly supports the MSM’s assertion that a rehearsal mechanism is essential for the maintenance and encoding of information into LTM. Additionally, Wearing’s ability to retain procedural LTM, such as playing the piano, despite an inability to form or retrieve episodic memories, further demonstrates the separation of memory systems. By linking the absence of rehearsal to his inability to form new long-term memories, the model is reinforced as a plausible framework for understanding the process of memory consolidation.

However, a significant weakness of the MSM lies in its oversimplification of the LTM store, which it conceptualizes as a single, unitary entity. Clive Wearing’s preserved procedural memory, juxtaposed with his inability to retrieve episodic memories, suggests that LTM is not homogeneous but consists of distinct subsystems, such as procedural, episodic, and semantic memory. This challenges the MSM’s assumption of LTM as a singular store and highlights the need for a more nuanced explanation of how different types of memories are stored and accessed. By failing to account for these distinctions, the MSM provides a reductionist view of memory processes. This limitation is further emphasized by evidence from neuroimaging studies, which reveal that different brain regions are involved in various types of long-term memory, an aspect not addressed by the MSM. As such, while the model provides a useful framework for understanding basic memory processes, it does not adequately capture the complexity of human memory.

Question 21

Types of LTM introduction

Answer 21

Tulving (1985) was one of the first cognitive psychologists to release the msm view of ltm was too simplistic and inflexible. Tulving propsed that there were three LTM stores, all of which continue different types of information.

Question 22

Describe eposidic memory

Answer 22

EM refers to our ability to recall events (episods) from our lives. This has been linked to a diary, aa record of daily personal experiences.
Complex
Time-stamped
Includes several elements, such as people/places/objects. All of these memories are interwoven to produce a single memory.
Conscious effort to recall.

Question 23

Describe semantic memories

Answer 23

This store contains are shared memories of the world. It has been likened to an enclopidia/dictornery. Knowledge of things. Not time-stamped Less vulnerable to forgetting and distortion Contains an immense collection of knowledge, which is constantly being added to. Declarative

Question 24

Describe procedural memory

Answer 24

This is our memory for actions or skills. We can recall these memories without conscious awareness or effort (eventually)

Question 25

LTM (AO3)

Answer 25

One key strength of the theory of different types of long-term memory lies in the empirical research support that underscores a biological foundation for their existence. For instance, Buckner and Petersen (1996) demonstrated that recalling semantic and episodic memories activates the prefrontal cortex of ppts, with neuronal activity occurring in both the left and right hemispheres. This finding suggests that distinct regions of the brain play specialized roles in processing different categories of long-term memory. As thes findings cannot be mainpulated by ppts, this support for LTM memories being stored in the pre-frontal cortext is high in valadity as ppts cannot control their brain activity. Therefore the LTM has high scientfic crediblity and significantly advancing our understanding of memory systems and their neurological underpinnings. However, there is conflicting evidence regarding how these memories are localized in the brain. Recent studies have shown that it remains unclear which hemisphere is primarily responsible for semantic or episodic memory retrieval. This inconsistency suggests that memory localization may vary across individuals, pointing to biological variability and individual differences. This suggests that the organization of memory in the brain may not be universally fixed but instead influenced by unique neurological factors across individuals. Consequently, whilst neuroimaging studies provide evidence for the different types of LTM, the inconclusive evidence highlights the need for further research to fully understand how long-term memories are organized and retrieved in the brain. Furthermore, an extension of this existing theory is that there are explicit (episodic and semantic) declarative memories that require conscious recall and implicit (procedural, non-declarative memories) that are unconscious. Evidence for this distinction comes from the case study of HM, a patient with severe amnesia. Despite being unable to form new episodic memories, HM demonstrated the ability to acquire a new procedural skill through repeated performance of the mirror-drawing task. Over time, his performance improved, indicating that implicit memory was intact; however, he had no conscious awareness of having practiced the task, reflecting a complete absence of emplicit memory for the event. This distinction challenges the conventional view that long-term memory is best understood as three discrete stores—episodic, semantic, and procedural—and suggests that a broader, more integrative framework may be necessary. The case of HM highlights the potential for parallel systems of memory that operate independently yet interact dynamically within the brain. It raises questions about whether a rigid classification into three types sufficiently captures the complexity of memory systems, or whether a model incorporating both the conscious and unconscious dimensions of memory might provide a more valid and comprehensive understanding of long-term memory.

Question 26

WMM (AO1)

Answer 26

The working memory model is a nomothetic theory proposed by baddely and hitch (1974) as an explanation for how STM processes and stores information. It is concerned with the mental space that is active in STM when manipulating information. The WMM suggest that STM is a dynamic processor for different types of information using subunits co-ordinated by a main-descion making system.

Question 27

Describe the centraul excutive

Answer 27

THis has a supervisory role as it monitors and stores incoming data, allocates tasks to our different slave systems, and focuses and divides are limited attention. It has a limited processing capacity and doesn't store information.

Question 28

Describe the phonological loop

Answer 28

One of the slave systems is the phonological loop, which deals with auditory data and preserves the order in which we here things. It is subdivided into the phonological store, which stores the words we hear, and the auditory process, which allows for maintance rehearsal. The PL also contributes to our learning of the sounds of language, and it does this by accessing LTM to store and retrive words. This allows us to develop our vocalbury as children and, in a foregin language, as adults. Its coding is acoustic and hass a capacity of up to 2 seconds worth of words we can say.

Question 29

Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 29

The second slave system is the visuo spacial sketchpad, which stores visuo/spatial data as required. It is subdivided into the visual cache, which stores visual data, and the inner scribe, which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field. It can also access our LTM to retrive/store data which is useful in developing our understanding of visual semantics. It is coded visual and has a capacity of 3/4 items.

Question 30

Describe the episodic buffer

Answer 30

Temporiarly stores visual/aidotory information that has already been processed by other slave systems. It bcan been seen as the storage component for the centrual executive and has a limited capacity of about 4 chunks. The episodic buffer links working memory to long term memory and wider cognitive processes such as perception.

Question 31

WMM (AO3)

Answer 31

One notable strength of the working memory model is its empirical support from studies on dual task performance, which reinforce the distic functionality of the slave sysytems. Baddeley et al (1975) demonstrated that participants can complete a visual task and a verbal task siminlationasly without significant interference, yielding results comparable to completing each task independently. However, when ppts completes 2 visual tasks (or 2 verbal task) concurrently, their performance on both task detiored substantially. This decline occurs because tasks of the same modality (both visual or both verbal) compete for limited resources of the same slave system-either the vss or pl. In contrast, tasks of different modalities are processed by separate slave systems, avoiding this resource conflict. A significant criticism of the Working Memory Model (WMM) lies in the unclear and poorly defined nature of the central executive. While it is proposed to function as the control center for attention, task coordination, and the allocation of resources to subsidiary systems, its precise mechanisms remain ambiguous. Unlike the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad, which are supported by substantial empirical evidence, the central executive lacks a detailed description and measurable parameters. Moreover, some researchers argue that it may not be a singular, unified component but rather a collection of subcomponents with distinct functions. This lack of clarity challenges the integrity of the WMM, as the central executive is a critical element underpinning the model's coherence. If the central executive is indeed multifaceted or inadequately conceptualized, it undermines the model’s ability to fully account for the complexities of working memory. Consequently, the central executive’s theoretical shortcomings highlight an area where the WMM requires further refinement and empirical validation.

Question 32

What is interference theory? (explanation for forgetting)

Answer 32

One explanation for forgetting is interference. This occurs when 2 pieces of information disrupt each other, resulting in forgetting of one or both, or in some distortion of memory. Interference has been proposed as mainly an explanation for forgetting in LTM. Once information has reached LTM it is more or less permeant, therefore any forgetting of LTM is likely because we cannot access them, even though they are available. Interference between memories makes it harder for us to locate them, and this is experienced as forgetting.

Question 33

What is proactive interference?

Answer 33

occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one.

Question 34

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 34

occurs when a newer memory interferes with an older one

Question 35

Describe research on effects on similarity

Answer 35

In both PI and RI interference is worse when the memories (or learning) are similar, as discovered by McGeoch & McDonald. They studied RI by changing the amount of similarity between 2 sets of materials. Ppts given a list of 10 words and had to learn until 100% accuracy. Then given a new list that either had 1. synonyms 2.antyonoyms 3. unrelated 4. constant syllabls 5. 3-digits 6. no-control Found worst recall with the group that had the most similar material (synoyms). Likely due to a similar memory trace being formed + stored for the similar words. This shows that interferences is strongest when memories similar

Question 36

Explanation of the effects of similarity (interference)

Answer 36

Either PI- previously stored information makes new similar info more difficult to store or RI- new info overwrites previse similar memories bc of the similarity

Question 37

Evaluate interference theory (AO3)

Answer 37

One strength of interference as an explanation for forgetting is the compelling evidence from real-world scenarios, which enhances the ecological validity of the theory. For example, Baddeley and Hitch (1977) studied rugby players’ recall of teams they had faced during a season. Crucially, while all players had the same time interval to remember the matches, their recall accuracy depended on the number of games played in between. Players who participated in more matches had poorer recall, directly supporting the idea that interference—rather than mere decay over time—was responsible for forgetting. This is because decay theory would predict equal forgetting across all players, irrespective of the number of intervening games. By utilizing a naturalistic setting and real-life tasks, this research provides strong evidence that interference plays a significant role in forgetting, particularly in everyday contexts, making the findings both highly relevant and externally valid. A significant limitation of interference theory is its descriptive nature, as it provides little insight into the cognitive mechanisms underlying forgetting. It does not explain how interference disrupts memory processes at a cognitive or neural level. For example, it fails to address why certain memories are more vulnerable to interference, or how the brain prioritizes and resolves competition between similar pieces of information. This lack of explanatory depth suggests that interference theory is incomplete when considered in isolation. To fully understand forgetting, it is necessary to integrate interference theory with alternative explanations, such as context-dependent forgetting. Context-dependent forgetting emphasizes the importance of retrieval cues, which could explain why interference effects are often reduced when contextual or environmental cues are present. Thus, while interference theory offers valuable insights, it is insufficient as a standalone explanation and must be considered alongside other complementary theories for a more comprehensive understanding of forgetting

Question 38

What is retrival failure?

Answer 38

Retrieval failure suggests forgetting is due to an absences of sufficient cues. When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues (a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory) are stored at the same time. If these cues are not available at the time of recall, it may appear as if we have forgotten the info, but in fact this due to retival failure-not being able to access memories that are available.

Question 39

What is the encoding specificity princible?

Answer 39

Tulving (1983) reviewed studies into retrieval failure and discovered a consistent pattern to the findings. He summarised this pattern in to what he called the encoding specificity principle. This states that if a cue (if it is going to be helpful) has to be present at both encoding and present at retrieval. It follows through from this that if the cues available at encoding + retrieval are different-or entirely absent-there will be some forgetting. Some cues are encoded at the time of leaning in a meaningful way. Other cues are also encoded at the time of leaning in a non-meaningful way:

Question 40

What is context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 40

recall depends on an external cue

Question 41

What is state dependent forgetting?

Answer 41

recall depends on internal cue

Question 42

Research on context dependent forgetting

Answer 42

Godden + Baddely Divers leant water/land then recall water/land Accurate recall was 40% lower in the mismatched conditions. They concluded that the external cues available at learning were different from the ones available at recall and this led to retrieval failure.

Question 43

Research on state-dependent forgetting

Answer 43

Cater + Cassidy gave antihistamine drugs to ptts-mild sedative effect making drowsy. This creates an internal physiological state diff from the normal state of being awake and alert. The ppts had to learn lists of words and passages of probes and then recall info=4 conditions. Performance on memory test significantly worse in conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall. So when cues absent more forgetting.

Question 44

Retrival failure AO3

Answer 44

A key strength of understanding forgetting due to an absence of cues is its practical application, particularly in areas that benefit both society and individuals. One prominent example is the development and use of the cognitive interview in forensic settings. This interview technique is designed to enhance eyewitness memory by reinstating the context of the event through context and state-dependent cues. For instance, witnesses are encouraged to mentally reconstruct the environment and their emotional state at the time of the crime, which provides the retrieval cues necessary to access otherwise inaccessible memories. This practical application not only aids in solving crimes by improving the accuracy and amount of information recalled but also reduces the likelihood of false memories, which can have serious legal implications. Such real-world utility underscores the importance of retrieval failure research, highlighting how theoretical understanding can translate into tangible benefits for society. While retrieval failure is a compelling explanation for forgetting, it is incomplete when considered in isolation, as other mechanisms, such as interference and trace decay, also contribute to memory loss. These processes explain forgetting in ways that retrieval failure alone cannot account for, particularly in situations involving highly similar or overlapping information. Additionally, trace decay theory suggests that memory traces fade over time due to physiological changes in the brain, irrespective of cue availability. This emphasizes the role of time-based factors in forgetting, further challenging the sufficiency of retrieval failure as a standalone explanation. Therefore, while retrieval failure provides valuable insights into cue-dependent forgetting, it must be considered alongside interference and decay theories to fully capture the multifaceted nature of memory processes.

Question 45

Describe Leading questions (AO1)

Answer 45

A leading question is a question which, because of the way its phrased, suggests a certain answer. This is a particular issue for eyewitness testimony, because police questions may inadvertably reconstruct witnesses answer, leading them to produce certain answers and thus making there account less reliable.. Loftus and Palmer's (1974) conducted a study to investigate the effects of leading questions on participants' recall of events. The researchers showed participants clips of car accidents and then asked them to estimate the speed of the vehicles involved. Crucially, the verb used in the critical question varied across groups: participants were asked how fast the cars were going when they "smashed," "collided," "bumped," "hit," or each other. The findings revealed that the verb used significantly influenced participants' speed estimates. When the verb "smashed" was used, the mean speed estimate was 40.5 mph, whereas the verb "contacted" produced a much lower mean estimate of 31.8 mph. These results suggest that the phrasing of a question can distort memory, with more intense verbs leading to higher speed estimates. This effect is attributed to two possible mechanisms: Response-bias explanation: The verb might have influenced participants' interpretation of the event, leading them to adjust their speed estimates based on the implied severity of the collision. Alternatively, substitution explanation suggests the verb may have altered the participants' memory of the event itself, with stronger verbs like "smashed" embedding a more dramatic memory of the crash. This is supported by a second experiment conducted by Loftus and palmer, in which ppts who originally heard smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none) then those who heard hit. Overall, the study demonstrates the vulnerability of eyewitness memory to post-event information and highlights how misleading questions can distort recall.

Question 46

Evaluate leading questions (AO3)

Answer 46

One notable strength of understanding the effects of leading questions is its significant contribution to improving EWT, particularly through the development of techniques such as the cognitive interview. By demonstrating how subtle changes kin the phrasing of questions can significantly distort memory, studies have informed practises that minimise memory reconstruction. The cognitive interview, for instances, incorporates stragies that avoid suggestive prompts or leading questions, instead focusing on reinstating the context of the event and engoraging free recall. This method has proven to improve both the accuracy and quality of info provided by witnesses, ensuring their testimony is less susceptible to contamination. As a result, LQ have had a high practical applicability in improving the reliability of evidence used in criminal investigations and leading questions, showcasing the societal value of understanding their effects. A limitation of leading questions is that their effects may not be consistent across all real-world contexts, particularly those involving emotionally charged events. Loftus and Palmers lab study relied on participants recalling neutral or staged events, (car accidents). These scenarios lack the emotional intensity, stress, or personal significance that real-life eyewitnesses experience, which can make memories more vivid and resistant to distortion. Research into "flashbulb memories" supports the idea that emotionally significant events are encoded differently and are less susceptible to suggestive questioning. Furthermore, individual differences, such as age, cognitive abilities, or personal familiarity with the event, can influence how much a person is affected by leading questions. Children and older adults, for example, may be more suggestible than younger adults. This variability in susceptibility raises questions about the generalizability of findings from controlled studies to diverse populations and high-stakes real-world situations, such as criminal investigations

Question 47

Post event discussion (A01)

Answer 47

Occurs when there is more then one witness to an event. Witnesseds may discuss what the y have seen with co-witnesses or other peopole. This may influence the accurarcy of each witness recall of event. Gabbert (2003) studies ptts in pairs, each pair watch a vid of crime differnt POV, so each could see elements the other couln't. Disscussed what seen then indvduak took a recall test. Found 71% mistankenly recalled event thta they hadn't seen but picked up in discussion. control group--->0% Eith due memory contamination- EWT become distorted as they combine (mis)information from other witness with their own memory. Or memory conformity- Gabbert suggested witnesses often go along with each other for social approval or bc assume others right your wrong. Doesn't change actual memory.

Question 48

Post event discussion (A03)

Answer 48

reliable standardised procedure help inform police separate witnesses

Question 49

The effects of anxiety (AO1)

Answer 49

Anxiety plays a significant role in influencing EWT, with research demonstrating both positive and negative effects on recall. The phenom of weapon focus, as shown by Johnson + Scott (1976), highlights the negative impact of anxiety on memory, where heightened physiological arousal diverts our cognitive attention to a weapon during a stressful event due to the treat it poses, impairing our recall of peripheral details. In their study, ppts believed they were taking part in a lab study. Whilst in a waiting room, they were either exposed to a low anxiety condition, where they overheard a causal conversation and a man walked out with greasy hands holding a pen, or high anxiety condition, where ppts overheard a heated argument followed by a man walking out with blood on his hands and a knife . Results revealed that participants in the high-anxiety group showed reduced identification accuracy (33%) compared to the low-anxiety group (49%), supporting the tunnel theory of memory, which posits that anxiety narrows focus to central, threat-related stimuli.

Question 50

+ve effects anxiety

Answer 50

However, contrasting evidence from Yuille and Cutshall (1986) suggests anxiety has a positive effect on recall. In a stressful. Witnessing a stressful event creates anxiety through psycological arousal within the body. The fight or flightg response is triggered, increasing alterness. This may improve memory for the event as we become more aware of cues in the situation. They conducted a study real-life shooting in candanda. There were 21 witnesses-13 took part in study. They were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident, and these interviews were compared to orignal poilce interviews at the time of shooting. Asked how stresses/emotional problems. They found that highly stressed witnesses provided more accurate and detailed accounts than less-stressed witnesses, even months after the event. (88% comp 75%) This suggests that anxiety does not have any detrimental effect on the accuracy of ewt in a real-world setting and may even enhance it.

Question 51

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 51

The Yerkes-Dodson Law reconciles these contradictory findings by proposing an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance, where moderate anxiety optimizes recall, while excessive or minimal arousal diminishes it. Therefore, the effects of anxiety on memory recall depend on the level of emotional and physiological arousal experienced during an event.

Question 52

Anxiety (AO3)

Answer 52

Individual differences, all have variablity in our threshold, not universally fixed therefore heard to generalise results of effect of anxiety on memory J + S may have tested unusualness, not anxity. PPts may focus in the weapon bc surprised, not bc scared. Pickled conducted an expiriment using sissors, handgun, wallet or raw chicken as hand held ietms in a hair-dressing video. EWT significantly worse in high unusualness condition. suggests weapon focus is due to unusuaalness rather than anxiety and therefore tells us nothing about the effects of anxiety on EWT.

Question 53

Describe the cognitive interview (AO1)

Answer 53

The cognitive interview (CI) was developed by Fisher and Geiselman (1992) to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony by incorporating insights from cognitive psychology. It comprises four key techniques designed to enhance memory retrieval. Firstly, witnesses are encouraged to "report everything," including seemingly trivial details, as these can act as retrieval cues for other important memories. Secondly, the method of "reinstating the context" involves asking witnesses to mentally reconstruct the original crime scene, including environmental and emotional states, which leverages context-dependent forgetting. Thirdly, the "reverse the order" technique has witnesses recall events in a non-chronological sequence to prevent reliance on pre-existing schemas or assumptions, thereby reducing dishonesty and inaccuracy. Finally, "changing perspective" encourages recalling events from another person’s viewpoint, such as a bystander or perpetrator, to challenge expectations shaped by schemas. An enhanced version of the CI (ECI) introduced by Fisher et al. (1987) emphasizes interviewer dynamics, such as managing eye contact and minimizing distractions, while reducing anxiety and encouraging open-ended responses. These techniques collectively aim to improve the quality and reliability of eyewitness accounts