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AQA A-Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of short term memory (STM)?

A

Memory for immediate events.

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2
Q

What is the definition of long term memory (LTM)?

A

Memory for events that have happened in the past.

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3
Q

What does duration refer to in memory?

A

A measure of how long memory lasts before it is no longer available.

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4
Q

What does coding refer to in memory?

A

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.

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5
Q

What does capacity refer to in memory?

A

How much information can be held in a memory store.

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6
Q

What was the procedure of the STM duration experiment by Peterson & Peterson (1959)?

A

24 undergraduate students participated in 8 trials, recalling a trigram (consonants) after retention intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 seconds while reciting a 3-digit number backwards.

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7
Q

What were the results of the STM duration experiment by Peterson & Peterson (1959)?

A

90% correct after 3 seconds, 20% correct after 9 seconds, and 2% correct after 18 seconds.

thus STM has a very short duration (>18 seconds) when verbal rehearsal is prevented.

Thus, STM has a very short duration (>18 seconds) when verbal rehearsal is prevented.

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8
Q

What are some criticisms of the STM duration experiment (1959)?

A
  • Sample is too small.
  • Sample bias by students (intelligence, age, etc.).
  • It wasn’t repeated, thus lacks reliability.
  • An artificial task; lacks mundane realism.
  • Difficult to generalize memory as a whole.
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9
Q

What was the procedure of the LTM duration experiment by Bahrick et al?

A

392 American participants (aged 17-74) were tested on their memory of classmates using photo recognition and free recall tests, conducted 15 and 48 years after graduation.

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10
Q

What were the results of the LTM duration experiment by Bahrick et al?

A

15 years after graduation: 90% accurate for photo recognition, 60% for free recall. 48 years after graduation: 70% for photo recognition, 30% for free recall.

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11
Q

What does the acronym G.R.A.V.E.M stand for in evaluating studies?

A

G: Generalization (age, gender, culture, etc.)
R: Reliability (is it repeatable? Was it repeated?)
A: Application (does it provide evidence in life?)
V: Validity (any external distractions? Representative?)
E: Ethics (was this consensual? How did researchers address this?)
M: Mundane realism (is this applicable to everyday life? Artificial task?)

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12
Q

What was the procedure of the coding of memory experiment by Baddeley (1966)?

A

Participants were divided into 4 groups, each given different lists to remember: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar, with recall immediately after and again after 20 minutes.

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13
Q

What were the results of the coding of memory experiment by Baddeley (1966)?

A

Immediate recall showed difficulty remembering acoustically similar words, indicating STM is coded acoustically. Delayed recall showed difficulty remembering semantically similar words, indicating LTM is coded semantically.

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14
Q

What is chunking in memory?

A

Grouping items into units/chunks helps aid recall (e.g., phone calls).

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15
Q

What did Cowan (2001) conclude about the capacity of STM?

A

STM is likely limited to 4 chunks, contradicting Jacobs’ findings.

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16
Q

What did Brandimote et al (1992) find regarding coding in STM?

A

Participants used visual coding in STM if given a visual task and prevented from verbal rehearsal.

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17
Q

What did Wickens et al (1976) find regarding coding in STM?

A

STM sometimes uses a semantic code when processing meaningful information.

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18
Q

What did Jacobs (1887) find about STM capacity and age?

A

Digit span increases steadily with age: 8 y/o = 6.6 digits, 19 y/o = 8.6 digits.

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19
Q

What is the Multi-store Model of Memory?

A

An explanation of memory based on 3 separate (unitary) memory stores and how information is transferred between these stores.

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20
Q

What is the coding, capacity, and duration of the sensory register in the MSM?

A

Coding depends on the sense involved (iconic for eyes, echoic for sound), capacity is high, and duration is less than half a second.

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21
Q

What is the coding, capacity, and duration of STM in the MSM?

A

Coding is acoustic, capacity is 5-9 items, and duration is less than 30 seconds.

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22
Q

What is the coding, capacity, and duration of LTM in the MSM?

A

Coding is semantic, capacity is unlimited, and duration is a lifetime.

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23
Q

What does the acronym S.O.D.A evaluate in theories?

A

S: Supporting evidence
O: Opposing evidence
D: Debates/different theories
A: Application

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24
Q

What was the case of KF?

A

An amnesic patient with brain damage had intact LTM but damaged STM, showing different types of STM for visual and auditory material.

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25
What was the case of HM?
HM had his hippocampus removed due to epilepsy, resulting in intact STM but damaged LTM, unable to form new memories.
26
What did Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggest about memory?
Memory is created by the processing done, not just rehearsal.
27
What is the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
A model that explains how STM is organized and functions, divided into different subsystems coordinated by a central executive.
28
What did Baddeley and Hitch (1974) study in relation to WMM?
They explained how STM is organized and functions, suggesting different subsystems coordinated by a central decision-making system.
29
What was the research support for WMM?
KF's memory was affected by brain damage; he could recall visually presented digits but not verbally presented ones, supporting the existence of different STM stores.
30
What did dual task studies show in relation to WMM?
Participants struggled with two visual tasks simultaneously but could perform a visual and verbal task, supporting the idea of separate components in WMM.
31
What did Baddeley et al (1975) find regarding the phonological loop?
Participants found it harder to remember a list of long words than short ones, supporting the limited capacity of the phonological loop.
32
Why is it harder to remember long words compared to short words?
Long words take longer to say, making them harder to remember. ## Footnote This supports the idea that the phonological loop has a limited capacity of 2 seconds of speech.
33
What happens during an articulator suppression task?
Participants are unable to recall words because their articulatory control process is occupied. ## Footnote This shows that word length does not affect recall when the articulatory process is suppressed.
34
What is the significance of the evaluation of the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
The WMM is more detailed than the Multi-Store Model (MSM) because it describes different components of short-term memory. ## Footnote However, there is limited knowledge about how the central executive works.
35
What are the three components of long-term memory (LTM)?
1. Episodic: personal events, time-stamped, requires conscious effort to recall. 2. Semantic: knowledge of the world, not time-stamped, requires conscious effort to recall. 3. Procedural: skills and knowledge to do things, not time-stamped, recalled unconsciously.
36
What does Clive Wearing's case illustrate about LTM?
Clive Wearing has damaged episodic memory but intact procedural and semantic memories, indicating a single dissociation in LTM. ## Footnote This shows that different types of LTM can be affected independently.
37
What did Tulving et al (1994) find regarding brain scans and LTM?
They found that episodic and semantic memories are recalled from different areas of the prefrontal cortex. ## Footnote This supports the idea that different types of LTM have a physical reality in the brain.
38
How did Belleville et al (2006) contribute to LTM research?
They developed an intervention to improve episodic memories in older adults, showing that research can lead to practical applications. ## Footnote This highlights the societal value of psychological research into memory.
39
What is perceptual-representation system memory?
It is a type of implicit memory that does not fit into the traditional categories of LTM, suggesting that other types of LTM exist. ## Footnote This indicates that the classification of LTM may be too simplistic.
40
What is retrieval failure?
A form of forgetting that occurs when we lack the necessary cues to access a memory, even though it is available. ## Footnote Cues can be external (environment) or internal (mood/mental state).
41
What were the results of Tulving and Pearlstone's study on retrieval failure?
Participants recalled 60% of words with cues compared to 40% without cues. ## Footnote This demonstrates the effectiveness of cues in memory recall.
42
What is the encoding specificity principle?
Memory is most effective when the cues present at encoding are also available at retrieval. ## Footnote Context-dependent forgetting refers to external cues, while state-dependent forgetting refers to internal cues.
43
What did Godden and Baddeley's (1975) study reveal about context-dependent forgetting?
Recall was 40% lower when the context at recall did not match the context at learning. ## Footnote This shows that the external environment acts as a cue for recall.
44
What did Goodwin et al (1969) find regarding state-dependent forgetting?
Performance was worse when the internal state at recall did not match the state during encoding. ## Footnote This indicates that internal states can serve as cues for memory retrieval.
45
What is proactive interference?
When past memories disrupt the recall of newer memories.
46
What is retroactive interference?
When new memories disrupt the recall of older memories.
47
What did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) find about interference?
Interference is worse when memories are similar, as shown in their study with different types of word lists. ## Footnote Synonyms caused the worst recall performance.
48
What real-life evidence supports interference theory?
Baddeley and Graham (1977) found that rugby players who played more games had poorer recall of team names, indicating interference. ## Footnote This demonstrates that interference can occur in real-life situations.
49
What contradicting research exists regarding interference theory?
Tulving & Psotka (1971) found that cued recall tests showed participants could recall 70% of information, suggesting memories are still available. ## Footnote This implies that retrieval failure might be a better explanation for forgetting.
50
What individual differences affect susceptibility to interference?
Kane & Engle (2000) found that individuals with greater working memory span are less susceptible to proactive interference. ## Footnote This indicates that interference theory does not apply universally.
51
What is the ecological validity of interference studies?
Many studies lack ecological validity due to controlled lab conditions that maximize interference. ## Footnote This limits the generalizability of findings to real-life situations.
52
What does misleading information refer to?
Information that may alter a witness's memory of a crime, affecting the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
53
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) find in their first experiment?
The wording of questions influenced speed estimates, with 'smashed' leading to higher estimates than 'hit'. ## Footnote This shows that leading questions can bias responses.
54
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer's second experiment?
Participants who heard 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass, despite it not being present. ## Footnote This indicates that leading questions can alter memory.
55
What is the response bias explanation?
Wording of questions influences answers without affecting memory accuracy.
56
What is the substitution explanation?
Wording of questions can actually change a person's memory.
57
What is the conformity effect in post-event discussion?
Co-witnesses may reach a consensus view, altering individual memories.
58
What did Gabbert et al (2003) find in their study on post-event discussion?
71% of witnesses who discussed the event recalled items they had not actually seen. ## Footnote This shows how discussion can contaminate memory.
59
What is source monitoring theory?
Some memories are distorted, and individuals may not recall the source of their information.
60
What is the conformity theory?
Memories are not distorted but may be influenced by discussions with others.
61
What research supports the impact of misleading information?
Loftus (1975) found that misleading questions significantly lowered the reported number of demonstrators in a video. ## Footnote This demonstrates the negative influence of misleading information on memory accuracy.
62
What did Loftus (1975) find regarding misleading information?
Loftus found that watching a video of a lecture disrupted by demonstrators led participants to report a significantly lower number of demonstrators after being asked misleading questions. ## Footnote This shows that misleading information can negatively influence memory accuracy.
63
What is a real-world application of misleading information research?
Research has warned the criminal justice system (CJS) about problems with eyewitness testimony (EWT), as mistaken identification has contributed to wrongful convictions. ## Footnote Wells and Olson (2003) highlighted this issue.
64
What is a limitation of studies on misleading information?
Studies often lack mundane realism, as watching a video of an accident differs significantly from witnessing it in real life, which may affect memory. ## Footnote This suggests that findings may not reflect real-life EWT.
65
What did Yullie and Cutshall (1986) find about eyewitness accuracy?
They found that witnesses to a real crime were very accurate in their accounts, with little change in accuracy over 5 months. ## Footnote This suggests that stress can enhance recall accuracy.
66
What is anxiety?
Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state likely caused by stress, resulting in physiological arousal such as increased heart rate and blood pressure.
67
What is the Yerkes-Dodson effect?
The Yerkes-Dodson effect states that performance is best when we experience moderate anxiety.
68
What were the findings of Johnson and Scott (1976) regarding anxiety and identification?
In a lab study, 49% of participants in a low anxiety condition could identify a man, while only 33% in a high anxiety condition could do so.
69
What is the tunnel theory?
The tunnel theory suggests that a witness' attention narrows to focus on a weapon because it is a source of anxiety.
70
What did Yullie and Cutshall (1986) find in their natural study on anxiety?
They found that those who reported high levels of stress were the most accurate in their recall after 5 months. ## Footnote This indicates that memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases.
71
What did Valentine and Mesout (2009) find regarding anxiety and recall?
They found that high anxiety participants recalled fewer correct details about a person than low anxiety participants, indicating that high anxiety can negatively affect recall.
72
What did Christianson and Hubinette (1993) find about anxiety in real-life crimes?
They found that witnesses to a bank robbery showed generally good memories, with those experiencing the highest anxiety having the best recall.
73
What did Pickel (1998) argue about weapon focus?
Pickel argued that weapon focus is not a relevant factor affecting EWT, as accuracy was poorer when witnesses encountered unusual objects like raw chicken.
74
What is a limitation of the Yerkes-Dodson effect?
The Yerkes-Dodson effect is considered too simplistic as it does not account for the various components of anxiety, such as cognitive and emotional factors.
75
What is a cognitive interview?
A cognitive interview is a police technique for interviewing witnesses that encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime to improve recall.
76
What are the four techniques of a cognitive interview?
The four techniques are: Report everything, Reinstate the context, Changing the order, and Change perspective.
77
What did Fisher et al (1987) contribute to cognitive interviews?
Fisher developed additional elements focusing on social dynamics during interviews, such as establishing eye contact and asking open-ended questions.
78
What did Geiselman (1985) find about cognitive interviews?
Geiselman found that cognitive interviews led to the highest number of correctly recalled facts compared to standard and hypnosis methods.
79
What did Fisher et al (1990) find regarding cognitive interviews in real life?
They found that detectives trained in cognitive interviews produced a 46% increase in recall and 90% accuracy compared to standard procedures.
80
What is a limitation of cognitive interviews?
Cognitive interviews are time-consuming and require specialist training, making it unlikely that they are always used correctly in practice.
81
What did Kohnken et al (1999) find regarding cognitive interviews?
They found an 81% increase in correct information but also a 61% increase in incorrect information when comparing enhanced cognitive interviews to standard interviews.

AQA A-Level Psychology (1 decks)

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