Memory.

Question 1

What is the multi store model of memory and who was it developed by?

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin- memory is a unitary system and if one part fails to function the whole system cannot work effectively as the system follows a linear path

Question 2

What is coding and how are the different stores coded?

Answer 2

How we take in an incurred information we receive, sensory memory revolves around our senses whereas the STM is encoded by sound-acoustically- and LTM by meaning-semantically

Question 3

What is capacity and how much capacity do each of the stores have?

Answer 3

How much the storage system can hold and despite being large most of the information from the sensory store is not paid enough attention to move to the STM. Maintenance rehearsal is required to keep information in the STM for longer than 18 seconds 5-9 items and if elaborate rehearsal occurs, the information is pushed to our LTM- unlimited, Otherwise it would be forgotten by a decay or displacement.

Question 4

What is duration?

Answer 4

How long the information is stored in our memories and though infinite for getting can happen in the OTM as a result of interference or retrieval failure.

Question 5

Give two strengths of the multi storm model of memory

Answer 5

Murdoch and glazer & cunitz: asked participants to learn and record a list of words on immediate recall, first and end words easiest = primary and recency effect. On delayed records only first words recalled = only primary effect. Lack of rehearsal means end words cannot be recalled. This shows distinct stores as delayed recall only impacted STM not LTM.

HM brain damage case study: could record information from life pre-surgery but unable to retain new information or pass onto the LTM which supports unitary system as without linear path it is ineffective

Question 6

Give two limitations of the multi model of memory

Answer 6

There is too much emphasis on notion of rehearsal, arguing it is necessary. Ignores that some information for instance memories can be acquired without conscious rehearsal.

It is oversimplistic; KF could learn new material which meant he had a good LTM but STM was impaired affecting ability to learn digits. Suggest another route to the LTM and linear path. Working memory model may be better explanation.

Question 7

What was baddeley’s 1966 research?

Answer 7

Coding in STM
-Asked to record acoustically similar and dissimilar words immediately
-asked to recall semantically similar and dissimilar words after 20 minutes
-In similar words, the record is worse
-Showed the STM codes acoustically and LTM codes semantically

-The words had no personal meaning= it was harder to encode so not generalisable

Question 8

What was the research of Peterson and Peterson 1956?

Answer 8

Duration of STM
-24 students given consonant syllable to remember and a three digit number to count backwards for 3, six, nine, 12 or 18 seconds

-after three seconds, there was an 80% recall
-After 18 seconds, there was a 3% recall
-It shows the duration of STM without rehearsal is 18 to 20 seconds

-It lacks ecological validity

Question 9

What was the research of Bahrick et al 1975

Answer 9

Duration of LTM
-392 Americans aged 17 to 74
-Recognition test: 50 photos from high school yearbook
-Free recall test: participants listed names from grad classes

-within 15 years of graduation it was 90% accurate
-Participants that were tested 48 years after had 70% accuracy

-Had high ecological validity
-Low temporal validity as it is not representative as we now have social media

Question 10

What was Miller’s research 1956?

Answer 10

Capacity of STM
-Noted every day things that are in seven for example, 7 days a week
-5–9 item rule can be improved by chunking
-cowen’s research concluded STM= 4 chunks maximum

Question 11

What are the two types of declarative LTM?

Answer 11

Episodic memory: refers to ability to recall events from our lives and it must make a conscious effort to remember

Semantic memory : contains shared knowledge of the world and is less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting then episodic

Question 12

Give an example of non-declarative LTM

Answer 12

Procedural memory: memory for actions or skills without conscious effort

Question 13

What was the case of Clive wearing?

Answer 13

Suffered herpes simplex virus leaving him unable to form new semantic- temporal lobe - or episodic- hippocampus- memories but could still play the piano which was procedural memory

-Lacks population validity

Question 14

What was the study of Henry molaison

Answer 14

He could trace a shape using its mirror image but was unable to recall having done it before= ability to use procedural but impaired episodic and semantic memory

-Lacked population validity

Question 15

Who was the working model of memory developed by?

Answer 15

Baddeley and hitch 1974

Question 16

What is the central executive of the working model of memory?

Answer 16

It directs attention and allocate information

Question 17

What is the role of the phonological loop?

Answer 17

Deals with auditory information and preserved the order in which information arrives

It is broken down into the articulatory control system which rehearses sounds and words until you need them and the phonological store which stores words for one to 2 seconds

Question 18

What is the Visuo - spatial sketchpad?

Answer 18

It stores visual and spatial information and has a limited capacity of free or four objects

-robert Logie 1955 subdivided it into the visual cache which stores visual data and the inner scribe which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

Question 19

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 19

It was added in 2000 and is a temporary store for information integrating the visual spatial and verbal information processed by other stores and maintaining essence of time sequencing-recording events that are happening
-Limited capacity of four chunks

Question 20

Give two strengths of the working model of memory

Answer 20

-there is clinical evidence: shallice and Warrington 1970 case study of patient KF-had brain damage as a result of motorbike accident and could recall visual information so his VSS was not impaired but not auditory information so his phonological loop was impaired which demonstrates the separate stores however lacks population validity
-Dual task performance: participants carried out a visual and verbal task at the same time and their performance on each or similar to when they carried out the task separately but when both were visual or both were verbal, the performance declined substantially

Question 21

What is a limitation of the working model of memory?

Answer 21

It lacks empirical evidence for central executive only mentioning attention and not explaining how it allocate information

Question 22

What is the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference?

Answer 22

Proactive interference is old information that has already been stored disrupt new learning

Retroactive interference is recent information learnt disrupts the record of previously learnt information.

Question 23

What was the study of McDonald and Mcgeoch 1931?

Answer 23

Procedure: studied retroactive interference by changing amount of words between two sets of materials and participants learnt just of words until memory was 100% accurate and there were six groups

Findings and conclusion : when participants were asked to recall the original use of words the synonyms produced the worst recall which shows that interference as strongest when the memories are similar

-Lax ecological validity as artificial lists and participants may not have motivation to learn

Question 24

Give two strengths of forgetting by interference

Answer 24

• Real world interference- baddeley and hitch 1977: asked rugby players to record names of teams they had played against and players who had played the most had the poorest recall
  Counterpoint : conditions necessary for interference to occur or relatively rare for example 2 sets of memory must be fairly similar

-Support from drug studies : Evidence of retrograde facilitation: coenen and luijtelaar 1997: gave participants a list of words and later asked them to record the list assuming the intervening experiences would act as interference and they found that when a list of words was learned under the influence of the drug diazepam recall one week later was poor, but when a list was learned before the drug was taken later recall was better than the placebo group so the drug actually improved and facilitated the record of material learnt beforehand

Question 25

Give a limitation of forgetting by interference

Answer 25

Interference and cues: interference is temporary and can be overcome by using cues- tulving and psotka 1971-gave participants a list of words organised into categories and participants did not know what the categories were and the recall averaged 70% for the first list but became progressively worse as they learnt an additional list but when they were told the names of the categories the recall rose to about 70% again

Question 27

What is the difference between context dependent forgetting and state dependent forgetting?

Answer 27

Context dependent forgetting: recall depends on external cue for instance whether or a place State dependent forgetting: internal bodily cues present at time of learning and now absent

Question 28

Give research for context dependent forgetting

Answer 28

Godden and baddeley 1975: studied deep sea diver who work on the water to see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater and the divers learnt a little of words either underwater or on land and were asked to record the words either underwater or on land which created for conditions Findings and conclusion: two of these conditions the environmental context of the learning and recall matched whereas in the other two did not accurate recall was 40% lower and the non-matching conditions and they concluded that the external cues available at learning were different from the ones available at recall and this led to retrieval failure

Question 29

Give research for state dependent forgetting

Answer 29

Sarah Carter and Helen Cassaday: gave hayfever drugs to their participants and it had a mild sedative effect making the participant slightly drowsy just to create an internal physiological state different from the normal state of being awake and alert and the participants had to learn a list of words and passages of prayers and then record the information and there were full conditions Findings: in the conditions there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall performance from memory test was significantly worse so when the cues were absent there is more forgetting

Question 30

Give the aim and procedure of the study of Loftus and Palmer 1974

Answer 30

Aim: investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT Procedure : participants watched videos of car accidents and were asked. How fast were the cars going when they smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted each other?

Question 31

What were the findings and conclusion of Loftus and Palmer?

Answer 31

Findings: mean speed estimates varied with the verb used for example smashed produce the highest speed estimate Conclusion: the phrasing of a question can influence a witnesses memory

Question 32

Give strength and weakness of Loftus and palmers study

Answer 32

Strength-high degree of control and replicable Weaknesses -lacks ecological validity, demand characteristics

Question 33

Give a case study for post event discussion

Answer 33

Gobert et al 2003 Procedure : pairs watched different videos of the same crime and discussed it Findings : 71% mistakenly record aspects they had not seen but picked up in discussion Conclusion : memory conformity occurs due to social pressure or the belief that others are correct

Question 34

Give the strengths and limitations of Gobert study

Answer 34

Strengths-good control, supports real life concerns Limitations - may not represent actual witness interactions, potential demand characteristics

Question 35

Give the procedure of Johnson and Scott study on eyewitness testimony and anxiety

Answer 35

Group one heard discussion in lab about equipment failure. Person emerged with greasy hands and a pen. Group 2 had hostile discussion, breaking glass and crashing of chairs between two people and the person emerged holding a knife covered in blood Both groups were showed 50 photos and asked to identify the person who exited the lab

Question 36

What were the findings and conclusions of the study of weapon focus?

Answer 36

-Group one had a 49% accuracy whereas group 2 had a 33% accuracy -Weapon focus-> weapon= which heightens central details and reduces peripheral details

Question 37

Give the strength and weaknesses of the weapon focus study

Answer 37

-High internal validity -lack ecological validity -Ethical issues -Doesn’t count for individual differences: Bothwell; versus Labour neurotic-easily anxious-accuracy decreased when stress increase whereas which stable individuals accurately increase as stressed increase -Contradictory evidence-Christian and Hubinette questioned 110 witnesses of 22 bank robberies and they found that bystanders had lower accuracy than threatened bystanders which shows memory can be accurate in highly stressful situations

Question 38

Give the case study of yuille and cutshall 1986-real life shooting

Answer 38

Procedure: interviewed 15 witnesses to a real robbery in Canada and interviews held 4to 5 months later Finding : witnesses gave very accurate account even after the time and those with higher anxiety recalled even more accurately In real world settings, anxiety may enhance recall -High ecological validity as it was a real event but hard to replicate and lack control over variables

Question 39

Who was the cognitive interview developed by and give the stages

Answer 39

Fisher et al -Recall everything -even seemingly insignificant details may be important or triggering the recall of larger events by acting as a cue -reinstate context-recalling the weather location and mood of the day prevents the context dependent forgetting by reminding the eyewitness of the external cues at the time -Recall from another perspective-describe a occurrence from a different perspective and try and prevent usage of existing schemas as these could distort memory -Recall in a different order-for example starting in the middle and this prevents confabulation in which they unconsciously fill in gaps in their memories with false information

Question 40

give the evaluation for the cognitive interview

Answer 40

-It may have little practical value: due to being to time consuming and requiring specialist skills for example kebble and Wagstaff argued that only a few hours of training is insufficient to adequately train interviewers -The cognitive review does not only increase the record of correct information by 81% but also increases the recall of incorrect information by 61% as suggested by kohnken et al-this appears counterintuitive when considering that the chief aim for CI was to improve accuracy of recall of correct information -Milne and bull 2000-suggested that we context reinstatement and report everything produced the greatest accuracy of recall of correct information as compared to any other combination of steps meaning if police forces do not have enough time to train the entire force for all steps involved even gradual changes can increase accuracy