Memory

Question 1

What is coding?

Answer 1

Coding is the format in which information is stored in various memory stores.

Question 2

Describe research into coding.

Answer 2

Baddeley- gave different lists of words to four groups to remember. (18 participants per group)

Group 1: acoustically similar words
Group 2: acoustically dissimilar words
Group 3: semantically similar words
Group 4: semantically dissimilar words

STM recall: when asked to recall the words immediately after hearing them, participants did worse with acoustically similar words.

LTM recall: when asked to recall the words 20 minutes later, participants did worse with semantically similar words.

This suggests that information is coded semantically in LTM and acoustically in STM.

Question 3

Evaluate research into coding.

Answer 3

• findings have limited application.

- Lab experiment: artificial task, low external validity, meaningless task, good control over extraneous variables

Question 4

What is meant by the term capacity?

Answer 4

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.

Question 5

Explain research into capacity.

Answer 5

Jacobs: Participants were presented with a string of letters or digits. They had to repeat them back int he same order. The number of letters or digits increased until the participant failed to recall the sequence correctly.

The mean number of items for digits was 9.3 and for letters was 7.3. Capacity increased with age during childhood.

Jacobs concluded that STM has a limited storage capacity of 5-9 items.

Miller: noted that things come in 7s such as notes on the musical scale and days in the week. This suggests memory span is 7, plus or minus 2. He also noted that people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters. He suggested they do this by chunking- grouping sets of digits or letters into unites or chunks.

Question 6

Evaluate research into capacity.

Answer 6

Lacks validity as confounding variables such as whether or not participants were paying full attention was not controlled,

Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM. Cowan reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM was only about four chunks, not 7.

Question 7

Define the term duration.

Answer 7

The length of time information can be held in memory.

Question 8

Explain research into the duration of STM.

Answer 8

Peterson and Peterson- showed 24 psychology students trigrams of 3 random consonants and asked them to recall them after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds. During the pause they were asked to count backwards in threes, this was an interference task to prevent rehearsal.

It was found that after 3 seconds, participants could recall about 80 percent of trigrams correctly. After 18 seconds, only 10 percent were recalled correctly.

Conclusion: When rehearsal is prevented, very little can stay in the STM for longer than 18 seconds.

Question 9

Evaluate the study of Peterson and Peterson.

Answer 9

Lab experiment- low external validity, meaningless and artificial task, good control over variables

Question 10

Explain research into the duration of long term memory.

Answer 10

Bahrick et al conducted a study into the duration of longterm memory.

Procedure: 392 participants aged between 17 and 74 from Ohio. High school year books were obtained and participants were asked to do a:
Free recall test
Photo recognition test
Name recognition test (matching names to pictures)

Results:
Within 15 years- 90 percent of names and faces were recognised and 60 percent accurate on free call.
After 30 years- free recall falls to 30 percent
After 48 years- name recognition 80 percent accurate, photo recognition 40 percent accurate

This demonstrates very long term memory within a natural setting.

Question 11

What is the multi-store model of memory?

Answer 11

(Atkinson and Shiffrin) A structural representation of how memory works in terms of three stores; the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also describes how memory is transferred from one store to another and how it is remembered and forgotten.

Question 12

Explain the three parts of the multi-store model of memory.

Answer 12

Sensory Register: stimuli from the environment such as sight, smells and sound first enter the sensory register which consists of five stores- one for each sense. This has a very large capacity but a short duration of about half a second. The two main stores are called iconic memory (visually coded information) and echoic memory (acoustically coded memory). Attention is required for information to be transferred from the sensory store into the STM.

Short term memory: has a limited capacity store as it can only hold 5-9 items. Information in the STM is acoustically coded and lasts for around 30 (unless it is rehearsed).
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat information to ourselves over and over again. Information stays in the STM for as long as we rehearse it and passes into LTM if we rehearse it for long enough.

Long-term memory: LTM has an unlimited capacity and indefinite duration. It codes information semantically.
When we want to recall it has to be transferred back to the STM by the process of retrieval- memories cannot be recalled directly from the LTM.

Question 13

Evaluate the multi-store model of memory.

Answer 13

(+) Patient HM underwent brain surgery to treat his epilepsy. His hippocampus was removed and he lost all long term memory. Despite this, his STM was intact. This supports the MSM’s suggestion that long-term memory is stored separately from STM.

(+) Baddeley: Found that STM is coded acoustically and LTM is coded semantically, suggesting that the two memory stores are separate and independent.

(-) Craik and Watkins: suggested there is more than just one type of rehearsal. The MSM says the amount of rehearsal is what is important in transferring information to the LTM but it was found that the type of rehearsal is what actually matters. Maintenance rehearsal just keeps information in the STM, but elaborative rehearsal is needed for LTM storage. This is when you link the information to your existing knowledge or think about what it means.

(-) Over-reliance on lab studies: In real life, we form memories about meaningful things but studies use artificial materials such as numbers and consonants which do not resemble things we normally form memories of. This is a limitation as the evidence on which the MSM is based has low validity.

Question 14

What did Tulving propose?

Answer 14

That the Multi-store memory model was too simplistic and inflexible and that there are three types of LTM stores that contain different types of information. He called them episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory.

Question 15

Explain the three types of LTM.

Answer 15

Episodic memory: A long term memory store for personal events (episodes) from our lives such as birthdays or going to places. They are time-stamped, so we remember when they happened and include several elements such as behaviours and places which are interwoven to form a single memory. We have to make a conscious effort to recall these.

Semantic memory: A long-term memory store for our knowledge of the world such as facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. These are not time-stamped and also need to be recalled deliberately.

Procedural memory: A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes our memories of learned skills. These are often hard to explain to others and we can recall these memories without making a conscious effort.

Question 16

Evaluate types of long-term memory.

Answer 16

(+) Evidence from case studies: Patient HM and Clive Wearing- both had impaired episodic memory by unaffected semantic and procedural memory e.g. Wearing was a musician and could still sing, read and play. Supports that there are different types of LTM stores and that they are stored in different parts of the brain.

(+) Neuroimaging evidence: Tulving et al got participants to perform various memory tasks while their brains were scanned using a PET scanner. They found that episodic memory was controlled by the right prefrontal cortex and semantic memories were controlled by the left prefrontal cortex. Supports that there is a physical reality to different types of LTM and gives it good validity.

(+) Real-life applications: knowledge of the different types of LTM allows psychologists to target certain kinds of memory in order to improve people’s lives- e.g. Belleville et al. (2006) found that episodic memories could be improved in older people with a cognitive
impairment through training.

(-) Cohen and Squire: Propose there are actually two types of LTM; declarative memory (made up of episodic and semantic memory)- memories which can be consciously recalled and non-declarative memories (procedural).

Question 17

What is the working memory model?

Answer 17

A representation of STM that suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making system (Baddeley and Hitch)

Question 18

Explain the different parts of the working memory model.

Answer 18

1) Central executive: the component of the WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It is an attentional process that monitors incoming data, makes decisions and allocates ‘slave systems’ to tasks. It has very limited processing capacity.

2) Phonological loop: The slave system that deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which information arrives.
- Phonological store: stores the words you hear
- Articulatory process: allows maintenance rehearsal. The loop has a capacity of two seconds worth of what you can say.

3) Visuo-spatial sketchpad: the slave system responsible for visual and spatial information. It has a limited capacity of about 3-4 objects (Baddeley).
(Logie) divided the VSS into the visual cache ( stores visual data) and the inner scribe (records arrangement of objects in the visual field)-sometimes called our inner eye.

4) Episodic buffer: Added to the model later on in 2000. This slave system is a temporary store for information that brings together material from the other subsystems (visual, spatial and verbal information) into a single memory rather than separate strands. It maintains a sense of time sequencing/ episodic chronological ordering. It links working memory to LTM and wider cognitive processes such as perception.

Question 19

Evaluate the working memory model.

Answer 19

(+) Clinical evidence: Case study of patient KF- suffered brain damage that led to poor STM ability for verbal information, but did not impact his ability to process visual information ( he could recall digits and letters but not sounds). This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas unaffected. This supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic stores.

(+) Evidence for visuo-spatial sketchpad: Baddeley’s study of dual-task performance show that participants had more difficulty performing 2 visual tasks at the same time (tasks that use the same slave system) than they had performing both a visual and verbal task at the same time (different slave systems). This means there must be a separate slave system that processes visual input (the VSS).

(-) Lack of clarity over the central executive: Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE doesn’t explain anything. Baddeley also recognised this, saying that the CE is the ‘most important but least understood component’ of the WMM. Some psychologists believe the CE consists of separate components. This is a limitation as it means the WMM hasn’t been fully explained.

(+) Brain scanning studies support the WMM: Braver et al gave participants tasks that involved the central executive while they were having a brain scan. Greater activity in the prefrontal cortex was found, and the activity in this area increased when the task became harder. This supports the WMM as the CE has to work harder when the demands increase.

Question 20

Name the two explanations for forgetting.

Answer 20

Interference

Retrieval Failure

Question 21

What is interference?

Answer 21

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.

Interference is proposed mainly as an explanation for forgetting in LTM. Once information has reached LTM, it is more-or less permanent and so forgetting long term memories is most likely because ewe cannot access them even though they are available. Interference between memories makes it harder for us to locate memories and is experienced as ‘forgetting’.

Question 22

Explain the types of interference.

Answer 22

Proactive interference: when an older memory interferes with a newer one e.g. writing 2020 even though it is 2021

Retroactive interference: when a new memory interferes with an older one e.g. learning loads of new names and so forgetting old ones.

Question 23

Explain the effects of similarity on forgetting.

Answer 23

McGeoch and McDonald found Interference is worse when the memories are similar. They studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of simliarity between two sets of materials. Participants learned the same first list to 100 percent accuracy before each group learned a different type of list:

G1: synonyms
G2: antonyms
G3: unrelated words to OG list
G4: consonant syllables
G5: 3 digit numbers
G6: no new list

They found that the ability to recall the first list depended on the nature of the second list. Those who learned the most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall. This shows interference is strongest when memories are similar.

Question 24

Evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting.

Answer 24

(+) Evidence from lab studies: It has been shown consistently in thousands of lab experiments that interference is likely to be a common way in which we forget LTMs e.g. McGeoch and McDonald. Good control over variables = confidence that interference is a valid explanation for forgetting.

(-) Artificial materials: Interference is more likely to be demonstrated in a lab setting than in real life as the stimulus in lab experiments is usually a meaningless list of words, while in real life we remember things such as names and birthdays. This is a limitation because it means interference may not be as likely an explanation for forgetting in real life.

(-) Related to the above, how much forgetting can be attributed to interference is unclear.

(-) Forgetting may be biological- the trace decay theory suggests that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical “memory trace” is formed. Over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time.

(+) Support from real-life studies: Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to try and remember the names of the teams they had played so far that season. Most players had missed games and so the last team they played might have been 2 or 3 or more weeks ago. They found that accurate recall did not depend on how long ago they played the match but how many matches had been played in the meantime. This supports interference and shows that it can be applied to everyday situations.

Question 25

What is retrieval failure?

Answer 25

A form of forgetting which occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory. When information is first stored, associated cues are stored at the same time.The memory is available however cannot be accessed unless a suitable cue is provided.

Question 26

What is a cue?

Answer 26

A trigger of information that allows us to access a memory.

Question 27

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 27

The encoding specificity principle (Tulving) states that if a cue is to aid us in recalling information, it has to be present at encoding (when we learn material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it). If the cues at encoding and retrieval are different (or completely absent at retrieval) then some forgetting will occur. Some cues are meaningful, such as using mnemonic techniques (eg STM) and some are not.

Question 28

Explain what context dependent forgetting is.

Answer 28

Baddeley conducted a study with divers, splitting them into four groups. learn on land- recall on land learn on land- recall underwater learn underwater- recall on land learn underwater- recall underwater It was found that accurate recall was 40 percent lower in the non-matching conditions, as external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall, leading to retrieval failure. This is an example of context-dependent forgetting: reduced memory performance when retrieval external environment differs from encoding external environment.

Question 29

Explain what state dependent forgetting is.

Answer 29

State dependent forgetting is failing to remember information based on being in a different state from when information was encoded. Carter and Cassadey gave participants anti-histamine drugs which made them slightly drowsy, creating an internal physiological state different from the 'normal state' of being awake and alert. Learn on drug- recall when not on drug Learn on drug- recall when on drug Learn not on drug- recall when not on drug Learn not on drug- recall when on drug In non-matching conditions of internal state, performance on memory test was significantly worse. Absence of internal cues caused forgetting. This is an example of state depended forgetting.

Question 30

Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.

Answer 30

(-) Context effects are questionable: (Baddeley) they are not very strong in real life as contexts have to be very different before they can be seen and it is hard to find something as different as land and underwater- changing rooms likely won't result in context-dependent forgetting. (-) Recall vs recognition: the context effect may relate to the kind of memory being tested. The test on land was a recall test however underwater divers had to recognise a word read to them instead of retrieving it for themselves. When recognition was tested, there was actually no context-dependent effect and performance was the same in all four conditions. This is a limitation as it means that the presence or absence of cues only effects memory when you test it a certain way. (-) Problems with the encoding specificity principle: It cannot be tested, which leads to circular reasoning (commits the logical fallacy of assuming what it is attempting to prove). In experiments, when a cue produces a successful recall of a word, we assume the cue must have been encoded at the time of learning. If a cue does not result in a successful recall of a word, then we assume that it was not encoded at the time of learning. There is no way to independently establish whether or not a cue has really been established. (+) Baddeley still suggests that context related cues have some relevance. For example, going downstairs to get something but forgetting what so going back upstairs and then suddenly remembering. When we can't remember something, recalling the environment in which we first learned it helps. This is a tactic often employed in getting eyewitnesses to remember things (in the cognitive interview).

Question 31

What is eyewitness testimony?

Answer 31

The ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information, leading questions and anxiety.

Question 32

What is misleading information?

Answer 32

Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event. It can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses and other people.

Question 33

Explain how leading questions affect eyewitness testimony.

Answer 33

Leading questions are questions which are phrased in a way that suggests a certain answer. Loftus and Palmer arranged for participants to watch clips of car accidents and then gave them questions about the accident. In the critical question, which was a leading question, they were asked how fast the cars had been going when they ____ each other. This blank was filled with one of five verbs: hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed. The mean estimated speed was calculated for each group. Contacted = 31.8 mph Smashed = 40.5 mph This is an example of how a leading question biased the eyewitness reporting of the event.

Question 34

Why do leading questions effect eyewitness testimony?

Answer 34

There are two possible explanations- Response-bias explanation: suggests that the wording has no effect on the memories of the participants, but rather influences how they decide to answer. Using the word 'smashed' encouraged the participant to estimate a higher speed. Substitution explanation: the wording of the leading question actually changes the person's memory of what they saw. This is supported by another study in which participants were more likely to report seeing broken glass upon hearing the word smashed than the word hit when there was actually no glass. The critical verb altered their memory of the incident.

Question 35

How does post-event discussion effect eyewitness testimony?

Answer 35

When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it one each other their testimonies may become contaminated. This is because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories. Research has shown how this happens: Gabbert et al: studied participants in pairs. Each was shown a video of the same crime but from a different point of view so that each participant could see elements of the crime that others could not. They then discussed what they had seen before completing a test of recall. It was found that 71 percent of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the crime they had not seen in the video but had picked up in the discussion. The corresponding figure in the control group where there was no discussion was 0 percent. It was concluded that witnesses often go along with each other to either win social approval or because they believe that other witnesses are right and they are wrong. This phenomenon is called memory conformity.

Question 36

Evaluate the influence of misleading information on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 36

(-) The study by Loftus and Palmer can be said to have low external validity as the sample was not representative. It was made up of young men (students) who were likely to be either new drivers or not drivers at all. This means they would know little about deciphering speeds and may have conformed to the leading question more than a more experienced driver would have as research into conformity has shown that people are more likely to conform in an ambiguous situation or one which they lack confidence due to task difficulty. (+) Useful real-life application: Research into misleading information has lots of practical uses in the real world where the consequences of inaccurate eyewitness testimony are very serious. For example, police officers are now aware of the distorting effect of leading questions and so can know to avoid them. (-) Artificial tasks: In the study of Loftus and Palmer, and that of Gabbert, participants watched clips of car accidents/ crimes which might be very different from experiencing it in real life, mainly because the stress of a real situation is absent. This is a limitation as there is evidence to show emotions can influence memory- studies which use artificial tasks may tell us very little about how leading questions affect eyewitness testimonies in real life. (-) Demand Characteristics: It has been argued that demand characteristics affect the findings of studies into eyewitness testimony as they are often lab experiments, and participants don't want to let down the researcher and want to appear helpful and attentive. They might give in to the leading questions because of the 'please-you-effect' rather than genuinely believing they saw something that didn't happen.

Question 37

What is anxiety?

Answer 37

A state of emotional and physical arousal- emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical changes include increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety can affect the accuracy and detail aof eyewitness testimony.

Question 38

Explain how anxiety might have a negative effect on recall.

Answer 38

Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us from paying attention to important cues, making recall worse. Johnson and Scott- conducted a study where participants were told they would be a part of a lab study and were seated in a waiting room where they heard an argument in the next room. Low anxiety condition: a man walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen with grease on his hands. High anxiety condition: Participants heard glass breaking and then a man walked out of the room holding a paper-knife covered in blood. Findings: When asked to identify the man from a set of 50 photos, 49% of participants from the low-anxiety condition identified the right man as opposed to 33% of the high-anxiety group. The tunnel theory of memory argues that the attention of the witness narrows to focus on the weapon as that is the main source of anxiety.

Question 39

Explain how anxiety might have a positive effect on recall.

Answer 39

Anxiety triggers the fight-or-flight response which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event because we become more aware of cues in the situation. Yuille and Cutshald- Conducted a study of a real-life shooting in a gun shop in Canada. The shop owner shot a thief dead. 13/21 witnesses agreed to take part and interviews were conducted 4-5 months after the incident and then compared to original police interviews. Accuracy was measured by the number of details in each account and participants were also asked to rate the anxiety they had felt at the time of the incident and asked if they had had any emotional problems since the event. It was found that there was little change in accuracy over 5 months and witnesses were mostly accurate (some details were not such as colour of items and age/height/weight estimates). Those who reported the highest levels of stress were the most accurate (88% accuracy compared to 75% for the less stressed group). The accuracy with which the eyewitnesses were able to recall the event led the researchers to suggest that the witnesses had flashbulb memories of the event.

Question 40

What conclusion have been drawn to explain the contradictory findings of the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony?

Answer 40

It has been suggested that the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted 'U' (a curvilinear relationship) The Yerkes-Dodson Law can be applied here, as low levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy, and as anxiety levels increase so does recall accuracy. However, once the point of optimal anxiety has been reached, any further anxiety causes a drastic decline in recall accuracy. This suggests some anxiety is good but not too much in terms of eyewitness testimony. (-) Too simplistic

Question 41

Evaluate the influence of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 41

(-) Weapon focus effect may not be relevant: The study of Johnson and might be testing surprise rather than anxiety as the participant might focus on the weapon because they are surprised at what they are seeing rather than scared. This is supported by a similar study by Pickelwhcih found that eyewitness accuracy is significantly poorer in highly unusual situations (Both holding a raw chicken and a handgun). This suggests the weapon focus effect is due to the unusualness rather than the threat, telling us nothing about the effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony. (-) Field studies sometimes lack control: Yuille and Cutshall had little control over extraneous variables such as discussions about the event, things participants had seen in the media etc. which may have impacted they recall accuracy. This is a limitation as extraneous variables might be responsible for the accuracy of the recall rather than anxiety. (-) Ethical issues: Creating anxiety in patients is risky as it might cause them psychological harm. The situation with the knife and the blood is questionable as it could be terrifying and traumatising, meaning the researcher would not be protecting participants from harm. This is why field experiments are so beneficial- psychologists can study real-life situations without facing the ethical issues of having to create scary and high-anxiety situations. (-) The inverted U explanation is too simple: Anxiety is difficult to define and measure accurately, one reason being it has many elements: cognitive, behaviour, emotional, physical, etc. The inverted U explanation assumes only physiological arousal is linked to poor performance, making this an incomplete explanation of how anxiety affects eyewitness testimony as there is more the relationship between anxiety and eyewitness testimony than just physiological arousal.

Question 42

What is the cognitive interview?

Answer 42

(Fisher and Geiselman) A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses 4 main techniques.

Question 43

Explain the 4 major techniques employed by the cognitive interview.

Answer 43

1. Report everything: Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even if it is a trivial/ irrelevant one or one the witness is unconfident about. Trivial details may trigger more important memories, making them important. 2. Reinstate the context: The witness should return to the original crime scene 'in their mind' and imagine the environment- what was the weather like? what could you see? what were you feeling? This is related to context-dependent forgetting. 3. Reverse the order: Events should be recalled in a different chronological sequence to the original sequence. E.g. from the final point to the beginning, or middle to the beginning. This is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of the event rather than what actually happened, and to prevent dishonesty as it is harder for people to produce an untruthful account if they have to reverse it. 4. Change perspective: Witnesses should recall the incident from other people's perspectives. For example, how would it would have appeared to other witnesses or the perpetrator. This is done to disrupt the effect of expectation and schema on recall. The schema you have for particular settings generates expectations of what would have happened and the schema is recalled rather than what really happened.

Question 44

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

Answer 44

Fisher et al developed some additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on the dynamics of the interaction. E.g. the interviewer needs to know when to make eye contact and when to relinquish it. The enhanced cognitive interview also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witnesses to speak slowly and asking open-minded questions.

Question 45

Evaluate the cognitive interview.

Answer 45

(-) Time-consuming: the cognitive interview takes more time than the standard police interview- for example, more time is needed to establish a rapport with the witness and allow them to relax. It also requires special training of police officers that most don't have more than a few hours of. This means it is unlikely the entire cognitive interview will be used by police in real-life situations. (+) Important elements: Although each individual element is equally valuable, and each technique on its own produced more information than a normal police interview, it has been found that using a combination of 'report everything' and 'context reinstatement' have produced better recall than any other conditions. This is a strength as it suggests these 2 elements should be used by the police even if the full cognitive interview isn't used. In turn, this increases the credibility of the cognitive interview amongst those who use it- police officers. (+) Support for enhanced cognitive interview: A meta-analysis combined data of 50 studies and found that the ECI consistently provided more correct information than the standard interview used by the police. This means there are real practical benefits of the ECI as it helps police and increases the chances of catching and charging criminals, which benefits society as a whole. (-) Increases inaccurate information: The techniques of the cognitive interview aim to increase the amount of information remembered. It has been found that there is an 81% increase of correct information but also a 61% increase of incorrect information in the ECI as opposed to the standard interview. However, this does not outweigh the benefits of using the CI as more correct than incorrect information is recalled.