Memory - AI Flashcards
1
Q
Define Coding
A
The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.
2
Q
Define Capacity
A
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.
3
Q
Define Duration
A
The length of time information can be held in memory.
4
Q
Define Short-term memory (STM)
A
The limited-capacity memory store. Coding is mainly acoustic (sounds), capacity is between 5 and 9 items on average, duration is between about 18 and 30 seconds.
5
Q
Define Long-term memory (LTM)
A
The permanent memory store. Coding is mainly semantic (meaning), it has unlimited capacity and can store memories for up to a lifetime.
6
Q
Define Multi-store model (MSM)
A
A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). It also describes how information is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered and how it is forgotten.
7
Q
Define Sensory register
A
The memory stores for each of our five senses, such as vision (iconic store) and hearing (echoic store), Coding in the iconic sensory register is visual and in the echoic sensory register it is acoustic. The capacity of sensory registers is huge (millions of receptors) and information lasts for a very short time (less than half a second).
8
Q
What is the coding of STM?
A
Acoustic (sound)
9
Q
What is the coding of LTM?
A
Semantic (meaning)
10
Q
What is the capacity of STM?
A
7 +/- 2
11
Q
What is the capacity of LTM?
A
Unlimited
12
Q
What is the duration of STM?
A
18-30 seconds
13
Q
What is the duration of LTM?
A
Unlimited
14
Q
Who researched into the coding of STM?
A
Baddeley (1966)
15
Q
Who researched into the coding of LTM?
A
Baddeley (1966)
16
Q
Who researched into the capacity of STM?
A
Jacobs (1887) and Miller (1956)
17
Q
Who researched into the duration of STM?
A
Peterson and Peterson (1956)
18
Q
What was the aim of Baddeley’s research?
A
Research coding in STM and LTM
19
Q
What was the procedure of Baddeley’s research?
A
-Used word lists such as cat,mat,hat and chat in research of memory. -4 sets of words: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar - Participants had to recall the order of the word lists. - This was done immediately to assess STM and after 30 minutes to assess LTM
20
Q
What does acoustically similar and dissimilar mean?
A
Similar - sound the same (cat, mat, bat, sat) Dissimilar - Don’t sound the same (cat, dog, tree, chair)
21
Q
What does semantically similar and dissimilar mean?
A
Similar - mean the same (big, wide, large) Dissimilar - Don’t mean the same ( house, car, stamp, phone)
22
Q
What were the findings of Baddeley’s research?
A
- List of acoustically similar words had worst recall (2 compared to 10 for other sets). Confusion of similar sounding words. (STM) - List of semantically similar words (2 compared to 10 for other sets) had worst recall. Confusion of similar meaning words. (LTM)
23
Q
What were the conclusions of Baddeley’s research?
A
- Lists that had poor recall showed words had become confused. - Immediate recall - acoustically sounding words weren’t remembered well. This suggest that STM is acoustically coded as participants could remember other lists fine. - Delayed recall - semantically sounding words weren’t remembered well. This suggests LTM is semantically coded, as participants could remember other lists words fine.
24
Q
What was the aim of Jacobs’ research?
A
Research capacity of STM.
25
What was the procedure of Jacobs' research?
- Developed a technique to measure digit span - how many items an individual can remember, in sequence and repeat back in order.
26
What were the findings of Jacobs' research?
Found the mean span for digits across participants was 9.3 items. Founds that the mean span for letters was 7.3.
27
What was the conclusion of Jacobs' research?
Memory can hole 7-9 items.
28
What was the aim of Miller's research?
Research capacity of STM.
29
What was the procedure of Miller's research?
- Observed that things come in sevens (days of the week, notes on music scale etc.). - Also used the digit span technique, but chunked item into groups e.g. words and sets of numbers.
30
What were the findings of Miller's research?
- Found people could recall 5 words, as well as 5 letters (via chunking).
31
What was the conclusion of Miller's research?
Used the term 'the magical number 7 to describe the capacity of STM.
32
What was the aim of Peterson and Peterson's research?
Research duration of STM.
33
What was the procedure of Peterson and Peterson's research?
- 24 students took part in 8 trials - They were given consonant syllable/trigram such as BNT and a 3-digit number and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal. - On each trial, they were stopped after 3,6,9,12,18 seconds. This was the retention rehearsal.
34
What were findings of Peterson and Peterson's research?
- Found that STM lasts about 18 seconds - After very few people correctly recall the consonant syllable.
35
What was the conclusion from Peterson and Peterson's research?
It suggest that STM may have very short duration, unless it is researched.
36
Who researched into the duration of LTM?
Bahrick (1975)
37
What was the aim of Bahrick's research.
Research duration of LTM.
38
What was the procedure of Bahrick's research?
- Testes recall of people participants had gone to school with using photo recognition (50 photos from yearbook) and free recall (recall names of graduating class)
39
What were the findings of Bahrick's research?
-Found 90% accuracy for photo recognition and 60% accuracy for free recall for people who had graduated within 15 years. -After 48 years, photo recognition recall was about 70% and free recall was 30%
40
What were the conclusions of Bahrick's research?
LTM lasts a very long time.
41
What is the coding, capacity and duration of the sensory register?
Coding - Iconic, Echoic, Haptic, Gustatory, Olfactory
Capacity - High
Duration - Less than half a second
42
Give 3 limitations of the research into the capacity, coding and duration of STM and LTM
Baddeley's study did not use meaningful material. The words used had no personal meaning to participants. When information is meaningful people will use semantic coding even in STM.
Jacob's study was conducted a long time ago and early research such as this, often lacked control of extraneous variable. For example, some participants may have been distracted. This would reduce the validity of the findings.
Miller's research may have been oversimplified capacity in STM. Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM was only 4 chunks which is lower than Miller's estimate of 7+/-2. thsi means the accepted capacity of STM may be inaccurate.
43
Give a strength/ limitation(combo whopper) of research into the capacity, coding and duration of STM and LTM.
Bahrick et al's study had high external validity. They used memories that were part of real life i.e. peers at school. Using real-life meaningful memories means that the findings are more likely to accurately represent memory in the real world. However, confounding variables were not controlled such as the fact some of the participants may have recently looked over their yearbook photos.
44
Give description of the Multi Store Model of Memory.
* Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed the model.
* Describes flow between 3 permanent storage systems of memory: sensory register (SR), STM and LTM
* SR is where information from the sense is stored for half a second. It is modality-specific (a taste held as taste)
* If sensory info moves into the STM it is primarily encoded acoustically
* STM has a capacity of 5-9 items for approximately 30 seconds.
* Capacity is increased through 'chunking'
* Rehearsing info via rehearsal loop help reatin info in STM and consolifate in LTM.
45
What does the Multi Store Model of Memory look like?
46
Give 2 strengths about the Multi Store Model of Memory.
It makes sense that memories in the LTM are encoded semantically. For example, you might recall the general message put across in a political speech, rather than all the words as they were heard.
The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research. It was influential in creating other models of memory, such as the Working Memory Model, to deal with he short comings of the original model. This shows how important Atkinson's and Shirffrin's contribution to the field of memory was.
47
Give 3 limitations about the Multi Store Model of Memory.
There is evidence to suggest that there are different types of STM. K.F. had poor recall of information read to him but could recall the same information if he reads to himself. The view that STM is only one store is therefore not correct and overly simplified.
There is evidence that there are different types of LTM. Clive Wearing could not recall what his children were doing with their lives (episodic memory) but could remeber how to walk and play the piano (procedural memory). The view that LTM is only one store s therefore not correct and overely simplified.
Craik and Watkins (1973) argued there are two types of rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative). Maintenance rehearsal is the only one described in MSM. It is argued that elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage where information is linked to existing knowledge.
48
What does the Working Memory Model look like?
49
What is the working memory model?
Representation of STM that suggests STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making system.
50
Who developed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) - focuses specifically on the workingsof STM.
51
Why was the WMM developed?
Atkinson's and Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model of memory was criticised for over-simplifying STM (and LTM) as a single storage system, so the WMM alternative proposed that STM is composed of three, limited capacity stores.
52
What is the central executive?
Manages attention and controls information from the twp 'slave stores' (phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad).
Processes information in all sensory forms but is only able to deal with one strand of information at a time.
53
What is the phonological loop?
* Component of the WMM
* Temporarily retains language-based information in auditory form and holds the amount that can be spoken out loud in two seconds.
54
What stores does the phonological loop consist of?
Consists of an articulatory rehearsal process and the phonological store.
55
What is the Articulatory Rehearsal Process?
* 'inner voice' of language, allows maintenance rehearsal
* includes any language presented visually and is then converted to a phonological state
* it involves subvocal repetition
56
What is the phonological store?
* 'inner ear' holds auditory speech information and order which it was heard
* (or any visually-presented language converted by the articulatory process).
57
What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
* Component of the WMM
* Temporarily retains visual and spatial information.
* Holds 3 or 4 objects at one time
* Consists of the visual cache which stores visual information about form and colour; inner scribe which deals with spatial relationships and the arrangement of objects.
58
What is the episiodic buffer?
* Component of WMM
* Facilitates communication between the components of WMM and LTM
* Integrates information from the other stores and maintains a sense of time sequencing.
* Can hold 4 chunks of information
59
What is the difference between the central executive and episodic buffer?
CE is the 'sorter'. Informationa arrives after the CE has paid attention. Then controls where the infromation is going - PL or VS.
EB is the link between the CE and LTM. Before it was introduced there was no way information from the LTM could enter the WMM. EB also holds information together and remembers sequence of information.
60
Describe the 'dual task technique'.
The WMM stemmed from research using this whereby performance is measured as participants perfrm two task simultaneously.
61
What is one observation from dual tasks that provides evidence to suggest different, limites-capacity STM stores process different types of memory?
If one store is utilised for both task, then task performance is poorer than when carried out separately due to limited capacity.
E.g. repeating 'the the the' out loud and reading a text silently would use the articulatory-phonological loop for both tasks.
62
What is another observation from dual tasks that provides evidence to suggest different, limites-capacity STM stores process different types of memory?
If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously.
E.g. repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst performing a reasoning task (requiring attention, i.e. the central executive), or whilst following a mobile stimulus with your eyes (using the visuo-spatial sketchpad).
63
1) Give a strength of the WMM.
(Double Whopper)
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's study of patient KF who had suffered brain damage. After the damage happened KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual infromation normally i.e he had difficulty with sounds but could recall letters and digits. This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact.
64
2) Give a strength of the WMM
(Hamburger)
Studies of dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Baddeley et al showed that participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal task.Increased difficulty for two visual tasks is because both were competeing for the same slave system, whereas for the separate tasks there was no competition. This means there must be a separate slave system, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, that process visual input, further supporting the existence of separate STM storesfor visual and acoustic information.
65
3) Give a strength of the WMM
(Double Whopper)
Brain scanning studies support the WMM. Braver et al (1997) gave participants tasks involving the CE while they having a brain scan and found greater activity in the prefrontal cortex. As difficulty of the task increased, activity in the left prefrontal cortex also increased. This makes sense in term of the WMM; as demands on the CE increase, it has to work harder to fulfil its fucntion. This suggests that there is biological basis to the CE componenet of the WMM, increasing the validity of the model.
66
1) Give a limitation of the WMM.
(DOuble Whopper)
Evidence from case studies of patients with brain damage needs to be treated with caution. Evidence from brain damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences. Baseline measurements are not taken of their behaviour before which mean there is no control to compare the performance after the injury. It may be that the performance of these brain damaged individuals is not the same as that of someone without brain damage.
67
2) Give a limitation of the WMM
(Double Whopper)
Cognitive psychologists suggest that there id a lack of clarity over the CE. It is argued tha this poart of the model is not really explained. The CE nedds to be more clearlyspecidfies than jiust being an attentional process. This means that that the WMM could be viewed as incomplete.
68
What is the coding of the CE?
All sensory forms
69
What is the coding of the phonological loop?
Auditory
70
What is the coding of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Visual and spatial
71
What is the coding of the episodic buffer?
All sensory forms
72
What is the capacity of the CE?
One strand of information at a time
73
What is the capacity of the phonological loop?
Amount of information that can be spoken at loud in 2 seconds.
74
What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
3 or 4 objects
75
What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?
4 chunks of information
76
What is Eye Witness Testimony?
The evidence given in court or a police investigation, by someone who has witnessed a crime or accident.
77
What is the standard police interview?
Geiselman and colleagues (1985) identified several ways that standard police interview methodology could negatively impact eyewitnesses’ recall accuracy of crimes. Police questioning techniques often prompted:
* Regular jumps between memory modalities (such as describing physical appearances and recalling dialogue)
* Event recall in a non-chronological order
* False memories due to leading questions
78
What is the cognitive interview?
Geiselman et al. integrated effective techniques into a new questioning methodology - the cognitive interview - to achieve more detailed and accurate eyewitness testimonies.
At the start, the interviewer attempts to help the witness feel relaxed, and seeks to tailor their language to suit the individual. They aim to be non-judgmental and avoids personal comments throughout. There are 4 techniques involved in the cognitive interview.
79
What are the four techniques involved in the cognitive interview?
* Report Everything
* Reinstate the context
* Reverse the order
* Change perspective
80
Describe the technique of reporting everything.
Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, though it may seem irrelevant or the witness does not feel confident about it.
81
Explain the reason why the technique , report everything, is used.
Seemingly trivial details may highlight something that has been overlooked that may be important. It may also trigger other important memories.
82
Describe the technique of reinstating the context.
The witness should return to the original crime scene “in their mind” and imagine the environment and their emotions. This links to context and state dependent forgetting.
83
Explain why the technique, reinstating the context, is used.
Reinstating the physical and mental context may act as cues/triggers to recall.
84
Describe the technique, reversing the order.
Events should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence e.g., from the end to the beginning, from the middle to the beginning.
85
Explain why the technique, reverse the order is used.
This helps to verify accuracy. It prevents people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual event. It also reveals dishonest, as it is more difficult to produce an untruthful account in reverse order. This helps to verify accuracy.
86
Describe the technique, changing perspective.
Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives e.g., from another witness, or the perpetrator.
87
Explain why the technique, changing the perspective, is used.
This promotes a more ‘holistic’ view of the event, which may enhance recall. It also disrupts the effect of expectations and schema on recall.
88
Describe the enhanced cognitive interview.
Fischer et al (1987) developed additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction. For example, the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it.
The enhanced cognitive interview also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly, and asking open-ended questions.
89
Give two limitations of the cognitive interview.
The cognitive interview is time consuming. For example, more time is needed to establish a rapport with the witness and allow them to relax. This interview technique therefore takes up more resources than the standard police interview. The impact of this is that the police may be more reluctant to use the cognitive interview.
The cognitive interview creates an increase in inaccurate information. Kohnken et al. (1999) found an 81% increase of correct information, but a 61% increase of incorrect information when the enhanced cognitive interview was compared to a standard interview. This suggests that the cognitive and enhanced cognitive interviews should be used carefully as they produce inaccurate information, reducing the effectiveness of the cognitive interview and its application in the real world.
90
Give a limitation and strength of the cognitive interview. (combo whopper)
According to Milne and Bull (2002), each individual element of the cognitive interview was equally valuable. Individually, each technique produced more information than the standard police interview. However, Milne and Bull found that using a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other conditions. This suggests that some elements are more useful than others and that it is pointless to use all four elements of the cognitive interview procedure if only using two produces the best recall.
91
Give one strength of the cognitive interview.
The cognitive interview is particularly helpful if interviewees are older. Mello and Fisher (1996) found that the cognitive interview produced significantly more information for older participants. This may be because older adults are overly cautious about reporting information if they feel they are wasting time, but the cognitive interview places an importance on reporting everything. This suggests that the cognitive interview is more effective for older people than younger people.
