memory and learning

Question 1

Define memory?

Answer 1

The faculty for recalling past events and past learning.

Question 2

Name and explain the activities involved in memory?

Answer 2

Encoding—Getting information into memory in the first place

Storage—Retaining memories for future use

Retrieval—Recapturing memories when we need them

Question 3

name the theories of memory?

Answer 3

Psychologists have developed a number of models of explanation, including the information-processing model and the parallel distributed-processing model, or connectionist model.

Question 4

explain the information-processing model?

Answer 4

information-processing model view of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Question 5

what is iconic memory?

Answer 5

visual sensory memory is also called iconic memory, meaning it is like a small copy of the visual event we have just encountered, just as a computer icon is a small visually descriptive representation of the program or file it represents

Question 6

what is echoic memory?

Answer 6

echoic memory is an auditory system that holds information for a short time.

Question 7

define the three-stage memory model.

Answer 7

1- Sensory memory: holds sensory information that lasts up to 1/2 sec for visual; 2-4 sec for auditory the capacity is large.
2- working memory: holds information temporarily for analysis up to 30 sec without rehearsal the capacity is limited to 5-9 items
3- long-term memory: relatively permanent storage with relatively unlimited capacity.

Question 8

explain working memory and short-term memory?

Answer 8

1- multi-store model: a storage location-somewhere that stimuli could be held for a brief period of time. (Atkinson and Shiffrin)
2- working memory: composed of a number of related process with different systems responsible for processing the different kinds of information while consciously working on, keeping it available for immediate access. (Baddeley and Hitch)

Question 9

explain the 3 system of Baddeley and Hitch’s short-term memory?

Answer 9

1- The central executive is the supervisory system that monitors and coordinates the entire working memory system by allocating attentional resources and selectively prioritizing information as it relates to two subsystems: the phonological/ articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
2-The phonological loop processes spoken and written information; it is frequently likened to a “little voice” that continually repeats what needs to be remembered, keeping that information active in memory.
3- The visuospatial sketchpad keeps track of images and spatial locations needed for navigation purposes, and is frequently referred to as the inner eye.
4- In 2000 Baddeley added a third subsystem, the episodic buffer, that serves to link together information from the other parts of working memory and also creates links to time and order as well as to long-term memory.

Question 10

what is the difference between short-term memory and working memory?

Answer 10

working memory is an entire theoretical framework composed of hierarchical processes used to temporarily store and manipulate information in short-term storage.
So, in many ways, working memory is short-term memory, but is composed of a number of sub-systems, rather than a unitary model as first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin

Question 11

what is needed to maintain attention?

Answer 11

To maintain attention on a specific task, one needs to have a goal.

Question 12

what is the role of executive attention?

Answer 12

working memory and executive function is controlled by executive attention; responsible for maintenance of goals and controlling interference while a person is engaged in complex cognitive tasks.

Question 13

what is memory stores?

Answer 13

The three systems of memory proposed by the information-processing model are comparable to the operation of a computer.
Sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory. all three are called memory stores.

Question 14

what is parallel distributed-processing model?

Answer 14

parallel distributed-processing model (PDP) (or connectionist model), holds that newly-encountered pieces of information immediately join with other, previously-encountered pieces of relevant information to help form and grow networks of information. (Baddeley and Hitch).

Question 15

what is automatic processing?

Answer 15

automatic processing encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort

Question 16

define effortful processing?

Answer 16

effortful processing encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort.

Question 17

what is the differences between effortful and automatic processing?

Answer 17

1- the encoding process will be disrupted if the individual attempt to do 2 tasks at the same time in effortful processing but the same doesn’t stand true for automatic processing.
2- extra effort doesn’t make the automatic processing more efficient while it does the effortful processing.

Question 18

what is sensory memory?

Answer 18

sensory memory: memory involving a detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for a brief period of time.

Question 19

what is the significand’s of George Sperling’s research?

Answer 19

Test of sensory memory In his study of the duration of sensory memory, George Sperling flashed a chart of letters, similar to this one, for 1/20 of a second. He found that participants could recall almost all the letters in a particular row if asked to do so immediately, but half a second later, their performance declined.

Question 20

define the working memory?

Answer 20

working memory a short-term memory store that can hold five to nine items at once.

Question 21

how to make sure the information is encoded into working memory?

Answer 21

rehearsal conscious repetition of information in an attempt to make sure the information is encoded.

Question 22

define long-term memory?

Answer 22

long-term memory the memory system in which we hold all of the information we have previously gathered, available for retrieval and use in a new situation or task.

Question 23

what is spaced practice effect?

Answer 23

spaced practice effect facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time.

Question 24

define eidetic memories?

Answer 24

producing visual images with extraordinary detail and near-perfect accuracy. Although recalling an object or scene that they have just witnessed, these people behave as if they are recalling items while looking at a photograph. Thus their detailed images are called eidetic memories, or photographic memories.

Question 25

when do we use visual codes?

Answer 25

When we encode non-verbal information into long-term memory, we once again tend to use phonological or visual codes

Question 26

when do we use semantic codes?

Answer 26

to encode verbal information into long-term memory, we tend to use semantic codes, representations based on the meaning of information

Question 27

what is hyperthymestic syndrome?

Answer 27

hyperthymestic syndrome (excessive remembering). a group of fewer than 100 people with the same condition have termed highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

Question 28

define SDAM (severely deficient autobiographical memory)?

Answer 28

SDAM is characterized by an inability to distinctly recall autobiographical information in individuals who otherwise perform normally on tests of cognitive functioning, such as attention, perception, working memory, and executive function

Question 29

what is mnemonic devices?

Answer 29

mnemonic devices techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of information as a way of making them more memorable.

Question 30

what is schemas?

Answer 30

schemas knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases.

Question 31

name the organization techniques?

Answer 31

1- Chunking 2- organizing a list of unrelated words into a story) 3- create a hierarchy of the information

Question 32

what is PQRST?

Answer 32

The PQRST method is an abbreviation named for its five steps. ( preview skim, Question, Read, self-recitation, test)

Question 33

explain each section of the PQRST?

Answer 33

Preview Skim the entire section you are required to learn. Look for the basic themes and try to get a rough idea of the information you will have to process when reading the section in more detail. Question Examine the organization of the section and turn each subsection into a question that you want to answer over the course of your reading. Read Read the section with the goal of finding the answers to your questions. Self-Recitation Ask yourself and answer aloud a set of questions that arose from the reading material. Work by Colin MacLeod at the University of Waterloo has shown that saying things out loud seems to increase their distinctiveness and make it more likely that they will be remembered later. Test Test yourself by trying to recall as much of the learned information as you can.

Question 34

from which sources dose information enters the memory?

Answer 34

1- from sensory information 2- long-term memory.

Question 35

what is temporary scratchpad?

Answer 35

because working memory helps us do mental computations, it is often characterized as a temporary scratchpad that briefly retains intermediate information while we think and solve larger problems

Question 36

who discovered the working memory's capacity at one particular moment?

Answer 36

On average, only five to nine items can be stored there at a given moment. This number was first uncovered back in 1885 by German researcher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who pioneered memory research by studying his own memory. Ebbinghaus’s findings were confirmed over 70 years later by psychologist George Miller.

Question 37

explain the memory span?

Answer 37

memory span maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order.

Question 38

what is chunking?

Answer 38

chunking grouping bits of information together to enhance ability to hold that information in working memory.

Question 39

which memory stores do we use while chunking information?

Answer 39

In chunking, we use our stored, long-term knowledge that certain letters spell certain words, or that words can be organized to form sentences, to guide us in chunking new information.

Question 40

what is the difference between implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 40

implicit: motor skills Explicit: past experiences and facts

Question 41

Explain implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 41

explicit memory memory that a person can consciously bring to mind, such as your middle name. implicit memory memory that a person is not consciously aware of, such as learned motor behaviors, skills, and habits.

Question 42

how many types of long-term memory do we have?

Answer 42

explicit memory: semantic memory, Episodic memory Implicit: Procedural Memory, Classically conditioned memory, priming

Question 43

explain Explicit memory and its branches?

Answer 43

semantic memory a person’s memory of general knowledge of the world. Ex: apple is red episodic memory a person’s memory of personal events or episodes from his life. Ex: graduation ceremony

Question 44

which part of the brain serves as the temporary storage area of the information of explicit memory?

Answer 44

Explicit memories are converted into long-term memories in the hippocampus and then are stored permanently in various areas of the neocortex

Question 45

which region of the brain plays the vital role of storage area for implicit memory?

Answer 45

the striatum, the region located toward the midline in the brain, plays a key role in the storage of implicit memories

Question 46

what will happen if someone damage its striatum?

Answer 46

an individual whose striatum is damaged by injury or disease may have enormous difficulty performing longtime skills and habits such as driving, yet retain most of her explicit memories.

Question 47

who proposed the level of Processing model?

Answer 47

Canadian researchers Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart’s Levels of Processing model.

Question 48

what is the argument of the level of processing model?

Answer 48

This model suggests that rather than passing information through distinct types of memory (short- versus long-term), we process information to shallow or deeper depths. This means that when you are studying, you should read for understanding and for depth of understanding as this will ensure better recall of material on exams

Question 49

define the Serial position effect?

Answer 49

Serial position effect The results of a recall task plotted in the form of a curve yield this classic pattern. That is, the position of a word on a list influences how likely it is that the word will be remembered. Those words in the top third of the list (primacy effect) and the last third of the list (recency effect) are most likely to be recalled.

Question 50

define the retrieval cues?

Answer 50

retrieval cues words, sights, or other stimuli that remind us of the information we need to retrieve from our memory.

Question 51

define the priming

Answer 51

priming activation of one piece of information, which in turn leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory.

Question 52

what is the difference between recognition and recall tasks?

Answer 52

recognition tasks memory tasks in which people are asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before. recall tasks memory tasks in which people are asked to produce information using no or few retrieval cues.

Question 53

what is context?

Answer 53

context the original location where you first learned a concept or idea, rich with retrieval cues that will make it more likely you will be able to recall that information later if you are in that same location or context.

Question 54

define encoding specificity principle?

Answer 54

encoding specificity principle a theoretical framework that asserts that memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding.

Question 55

define state-dependent memory?

Answer 55

state-dependent memory memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place.

Question 56

modulation hypothesis?

Answer 56

According to the modulation hypothesis, long-lasting emotional effects on memory can be attributed to the activation of the amygdala during the encoding of emotional events. However, this effect takes time, so it cannot account for the immediate effects of emotion on memory

Question 57

define the flashbulb memories?

Answer 57

flashbulb memories detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event.

Question 58

define the flashbulb memories?

Answer 58

flashbulb memories detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event.

Question 59

define the forgetting?

Answer 59

forgetting the inability to recall information that was previously encoded into memory.

Question 60

What is Decay?

Answer 60

decay theory theory of forgetting, suggesting that memories fade over time due to neglect or failure to access over long periods of time.

Question 61

define the interference theory?

Answer 61

interference theory theory that forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before or after they take information in.

Question 62

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 62

retroactive interference learning of new information that disrupts access to previously recalled information.

Question 63

define the proactive information?

Answer 63

proactive interference competing information that is learned before the forgotten material, preventing its subsequent recall.

Question 64

what is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference?

Answer 64

Retroactive: New information interferes with the old information. Proactive: Old information interferes with the new information.

Question 65

what is repression?

Answer 65

repression process in which we unconsciously prevent some traumatic events from entering our awareness so that we do not have to experience the anxiety or blows to our self-concept that the memories would bring.

Question 66

what factors contributed in reconstruction of memory?

Answer 66

Three of the most common are source misattributions, exposure to misinformation, and the effects of imagination

Question 67

what is source misattributions?

Answer 67

source misattribution remembering information, but not the source it came from; can lead to remembering information from unreliable sources as true

Question 68

define the exposure to misinformation?

Answer 68

New information that is inaccurate or misleading can distort our recall or lead us to manufacture new memories

Question 69

what is effects of imagination?

Answer 69

Our own imagination can lead us to recall events that never took place

Question 70

what is the argument of the connectionist theorists regarding memory?

Answer 70

connectionist theorists see memory as a process rather than a place, an activity that involves changes in networks of multiple neurons throughout the brain; network association.

Question 71

what is the functions of hippocampus in memory?

Answer 71

hippocampus is important in long-term memory. It converts the explicit memory into long-term memory. stores the memory temporarily and sends to different neocortex regions for long-term storage. it is important in autobiographical memory storage and retrieval as well as spatial layout.

Question 72

what is memory consolidation?

Answer 72

memory consolidation process by which memories stabilize in the brain.

Question 73

define potentiation?

Answer 73

potentiation synchronous networks of cells firing together.

Question 74

define the long-term potentiation?

Answer 74

long-term potentiation (LTP) a phenomenon where repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain greatly increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation.

Question 75

what is the importance of Glutamate in memory formation?

Answer 75

1. Glutamate is used by neuros that exhibit LTP. 2. very common excitatory neurotransmitter. 3. a key neurotransmitter in memory formation 4. commonly located in hippocampus and neocortex (important region for long-term memories).

Question 76

what is the significands of acetylcholine in memory?

Answer 76

1. important in separating the enncoing of new memories and the retrieval of existing memories. 2. important in consolidation and stabilizing of long-term memory by controlling the sleep/wake cycle.

Question 77

what is infantile amnesia?

Answer 77

the inability to remember the event of the first 3 1/2 to 4 years of life.

Question 78

what is the reason for infantile amnesia?

Answer 78

the episodic memories (life event) stores in hippocampus. and the inability of the brain to transform the episodic memories from hippocampus to other locations in the neocortex in the early infancy is the reason for infantile amnesia.

Question 79

what is preferential looking?

Answer 79

An infant’s interest in something novel (new) in his or her environment is known as “preferential looking.”

Question 80

define prospective memory?

Answer 80

prospective memory ability to remember content in the future.

Question 81

define retrospective memory?

Answer 81

retrospective memory ability to remember content from the past.

Question 82

name the memory disorder groups?

Answer 82

1. Organic memory disorders: physical causes of memory impairment can be identified. 2. Dissociative disorders: no clear physical cause for the memory impairment.

Question 83

name the most common type of organic memory disorder?

Answer 83

amnestic disorders organic disorders in which memory loss is the primary symptom. and affect both memory and other cognitive functions. and they may experience retrograde and anterograde amnesia.

Question 84

define the retrograde amnesia?

Answer 84

retrograde amnesia inability to remember things that occurred before an organic event.

Question 85

what is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 85

anterograde amnesia ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event.

Question 86

what is dementia?

Answer 86

dementia (a common type of neurodegeneration disorder) severe memory problems combined with losses in at least one other cognitive function, such as abstract thinking or language.

Question 87

what is Alzheimer?

Answer 87

Alzheimer’s disease most common form of dementia, usually beginning with mild memory problems, lapses of attention, and problems in language, and progressing to difficulty with even simple tasks and recall of long-held memories.

Question 88

what is the significant of Alzheimer patients?

Answer 88

People with Alzheimer’s disease form far more numbers of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques than do those without the disease

Question 89

define the neurofibrillary tangles?

Answer 89

neurofibrillary tangles twisted protein fibers found within the cells of the hippocampus and certain other brain areas.

Question 90

define the cognition?

Answer 90

cognition mental processes of thinking and knowing.

Question 91

define language?

Answer 91

language a set of symbols used to communicate.

Question 92

what are the components of the language?

Answer 92

language production the structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words. speech the expression of language through sounds.

Question 93

define vocalization?

Answer 93

sound produced to communicate

Question 94

what is language comprehension?

Answer 94

language comprehension the process and ability of understanding spoken, written, or signed language.

Question 95

name the language structure?

Answer 95

phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

Question 96

what is phonemes?

Answer 96

phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a language; an individual sound such as ba, da, or ta.

Question 97

define the phonology?

Answer 97

phonology the study of how individual sounds or phonemes are used to produce language and word.

Question 98

what is morphemes?

Answer 98

morpheme the smallest units of a language that convey meaning. ex: jumped, has 2 morphemes: jump and ed.

Question 99

what is semantics?

Answer 99

semantics the study of how meaning in language is constructed of individual words and sentences. For example, if we say that it is “raining cats and dogs,” this expression means that it is raining very heavily.

Question 100

define the lexical meaning?

Answer 100

lexical meaning dictionary meaning of a word. ex: awful; it used to mean “full of awe,” but now means that something is extremely bad or unpleasant.

Question 101

what is non-lexical sounds?

Answer 101

words like hmmmm or ahhhh that require observational experience to understand how and when they are used in social interaction in one’s language community

Question 102

define the syntax?

Answer 102

syntax the system for using words (semantics) and word order to convey meaning (grammar).

Question 103

what is pragmatics?

Answer 103

pragmatics the practical aspects of language usage, including speech pace, gesturing, and body language.

Question 104

how language develops in babies?

Answer 104

1. Prevocal learning Between 2 and 4 months of age: ability to distinguish the phonemes. 2. Cooing By about 2 months of age: non-crying vocalization. single phonemes 3. Babbling By about 6 months: production of meaningless speech sounds like da, da, da 4. First words By about 1 year: simple words like mama or dada 5. Telegraphic speech By age 2: 2-word sentences. 6. Pragmatics By 3 years of age: practical information such as pause. 7. Grammar By age 4:

Question 105

how did Chomsky described our language learning ability?

Answer 105

Chomsky described our early capacity for language learning as working as if we had a sort of language acquisition device built in to our brains.

Question 106

define the critical period?

Answer 106

critical period a window of time in development during which certain influences are necessary for appropriate formation of the brain.

Question 107

what is sensitive period?

Answer 107

sensitive period a point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences.

Question 107

what is sensitive period?

Answer 107

sensitive period a point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences.

Question 108

what is child-directed speech?

Answer 108

child-directed speech: speech characterized by exaggerated emotional responses and a slower pace that is cross-culturally common among caregivers communicating with babies and young children.

Question 109

what is time-worms?

Answer 109

time-worms associated with the birth of each word in his son’s vocabulary and focus in detail on the social contexts in which those word births occurred (Deb Roy).

Question 110

define the overregularization?

Answer 110

overregularization the process by which elementary school children over-apply newly-learned grammatical rules to improperly “correct” an irregular part of speech, such as a verb (e.g., “goed” instead of “went”).

Question 111

where is the language comprehension center located in the brain?

Answer 111

mostly in the left hemisphere but in a small percentage in the right hemisphere. usually, girls uses both hemisphere.

Question 112

Broca's area?

Answer 112

Broca’s area a brain region located in the frontal lobe that is important for speech production.

Question 113

what is Broca's aphasia?

Answer 113

Broca’s aphasia a neurological condition arising from damage to Broca’s area where the patient is unable to produce coherent speech.

Question 114

agrammatism?

Answer 114

agrammatism a neurological condition arising from damage to a brain region just anterior to Broca’s area, where the patient is incapable of using words in grammatical sequence. (caused by damage in the Broca's area)

Question 115

what is the symptoms of the agrammatism?

Answer 115

1. inability to use grammar 2. inability to understand the grammar

Question 116

what is the role of Wernicke's area and what is Wernicke's aphasia?

Answer 116

Wernicke’s area a brain region located in the temporal lobe that is important for language comprehension. Wernicke’s aphasia a neurological condition associated with damage to Wernicke’s area where a person cannot understand language.

Question 117

what is the importance of the amygdala in language comprehension?

Answer 117

amygdala, a brain region important for fear and aggression, appears to be involved in the use of profanity

Question 118

what is the consequence of the damage in the right hemisphere?

Answer 118

lack of understanding the figurative language and joke/metaphore.

Question 119

what is the impact of reading in activation of the brain regions?

Answer 119

Since reading involves eye movements, for example, it recruits a brain region in the frontal lobe called the frontal eye fields. 1. obscenities or disgust word: amygdala 2. words of odor evokers: primary olfactory

Question 120

what is the sensory cross connections of the brain called?

Answer 120

embodied cognition

Question 121

what is mental imagery?

Answer 121

mental imagery picturing things in your mind.

Question 122

define the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

Answer 122

linguistic relativity hypothesis: hypothesis suggesting that the vocabulary available for objects or concepts in a language influences how speakers of that language think about them.

Question 123

what is cognitive control?

Answer 123

Cognitive control refers to the ability to direct thought and action in accord with one’s intentions

Question 124

what is executive function?

Answer 124

executive function the brain’s ability to control and manage the mental processing of information.

Question 125

what is dysexecutive syndrome?

Answer 125

dysexecutive syndrome impairments in the ability to control and direct mental activities. (damage to the frontal lobe).

Question 126

what is a well defined problem?

Answer 126

problems with easy to discern beginning and end states.

Question 127

what is ill defined problems?

Answer 127

when the goal is difficult to define in precise terms.

Question 128

name the strategies for problem solving?

Answer 128

1. algorithm a problem-solving strategy that always leads to a solution. 2. heuristic a shortcut thinking strategy.

Question 129

name some of the strategies from heuristic approach that can be effective?

Answer 129

working backwards is helpful for well defined goals. forming subgoals searching for analogies insight; eureka

Question 130

what is functional fixedness?

Answer 130

functional fixedness tendency to view objects as having only one function.

Question 131

what is representativeness heuristic?

Answer 131

representativeness heuristic the assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category of which they are a member.

Question 132

what is availability heuristic?

Answer 132

availability heuristic judging easily-recalled events as more common.

Question 133

define bounded rationality?

Answer 133

bounded rationality the fact that in many situations, our ability to make clear rational decisions is limited or “bounded” by things like a lack of information, time constraints, or emotions attached to aspects of the problem we are trying to solve.

Question 134

metacognition?

Answer 134

metacognition thinking about one’s own thoughts.

Question 135

what is self reflection?

Answer 135

a form of metacognition; thinking about own identity.

Question 136

what is theory of mind?

Answer 136

theory of mind an awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others.

Question 137

OCD?

Answer 137

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) a mental disorder associated with abnormal anxiety-provoking thoughts that can lead to ritualistic behaviors.