MEMORYYYY Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
Why study memory?
A
Because it is so central to everyday life.
2
Q
What are the three main processes that support memory?
A
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
3
Q
What must happen for information to be remembered?
A
Information must be available (successfully encoded) and accessible (retrievable).
4
Q
What distinguishes different memory systems?
A
Evidence for a specialised or independent memory system.
5
Q
What type of memory does Korsakoff’s patients exhibit?
A
Extremely poor long-term memory but virtually normal short-term memory.
6
Q
What is the opposite pattern of memory impairment observed in KF?
A
No problem with long-term learning and recall but grossly impaired digit span.
7
Q
List the three distinct types of long-term memory according to Tulving.
A
- Episodic
- Semantic
- Procedural
8
Q
What is episodic memory?
A
Memory for specific events.
9
Q
What is semantic memory?
A
Knowledge and facts.
10
Q
What is procedural memory?
A
Memory for skills and actions.
11
Q
What do Cohen & Squire suggest about semantic and episodic memory?
A
They are closely related.
12
Q
Fill in the blank: Declarative memory includes __________ and __________.
A
[semantic] and [episodic]
13
Q
Fill in the blank: Procedural memory is referred to as __________.
A
[knowing how]
14
Q
What kind of memory problems did the amnesic children studied by Vargha-Khadem exhibit?
A
Disabling memory problems in their everyday lives.
15
Q
What common brain damage was found in the amnesic children studied?
A
Selective bilateral atrophy of the hippocampal formation.
16
Q
What was the clinical profile of the amnesic children?
A
Dense, selective, anterograde amnesia.
17
Q
What was revealed by the experimental tests of memory conducted on the children?
A
Selective deficit in remembering associations or relationships between stimuli.
18
Q
What does the memory failure in Vargha-Khadem’s study reflect?
A
Inability to bind different kinds of information together into a single unique episode.
19
Q
What is dual-process theory in relation to episodic memory?
A
Episodic memory is associated with recollection and familiarity can support recognition memory performance.
20
Q
What may Vargha-Khadem’s patients have utilized for their intact recognition performance?
A
Familiarity of studied items.
21
Q
What are the main processes involved in memory?
A
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
These processes are essential for understanding how memories are formed and accessed.
22
Q
What does the Levels-of-Processing Theory propose?
A
The attentional and perceptual processes during learning determine what information is stored in long-term memory (LTM)
Deeper levels of analysis lead to stronger memory traces.
23
Q
What are the three study tasks in the Levels-of-Processing Theory?
A
- Structural
- Acoustic
- Semantic
- These tasks assess different levels of processing for memory retention.
24
Q
What did Hyde & Jenkins (1973) compare in their study?
A
Intentional learning vs. Incidental learning
–Their findings indicated no significant difference between the two learning types.
25
What is the significance of elaboration in memory encoding?
Elaboration enhances recall by providing more context and detail
-More complex sentences lead to better memory performance.
26
What are flashbulb memories?
Vivid and detailed memories of distinctive events
--
They are often associated with emotional and consequential experiences.
27
What did Brown & Kulik (1982) suggest about flashbulb memories?
They are triggered by emotional, surprising, and highly important events --
This suggests a special neural mechanism is involved in these memories.
28
According to Neisser (1982), what contributes to the durability of flashbulb memories?
Frequent rehearsal
--This challenges the notion that flashbulb memories are fundamentally different from other memories.
## Footnote
This challenges the notion that flashbulb memories are fundamentally different from other memories.
29
What is the Encoding Specificity Theory?
The most effective retrieval pathways are those that re-instate the processing that occurred during encoding
--
Overlap in conditions at encoding and retrieval is critical for memory recall.
e.g. having a convo in a certain place, then being back in the same place to recall it will improve retrieval
30
What did Fisher and Craik (1976) study regarding context effects?
They examined how different associative encoding and retrieval tasks affected recall
## Footnote
Their work highlights the importance of context in memory performance.
31
What is the impact of internal context effects on memory?
They show how the internal state during encoding influences retrieval success
Studies by Teasdale & Fogarty (1979) and Eich (1980) support this concept.
32
What do external context effects reveal about memory?
Information is always encoded within a context, affecting recall and recognition --
Godden & Baddeley (1975) demonstrated these effects in their research.
33
What is the relationship between encoding and retrieval in memory?
Memory performance depends on the interplay between processing at encoding and retrieval
-- Both aspects are crucial for effective memory recall.
34
Fill in the blank: The degree of '______' in the conditions at encoding and retrieval is critical for memory.
overlap --- This concept is central to the Encoding Specificity Theory.
35
True or False: The factors influencing remembering are specific to episodic memory.
False -
The factors apply equally to episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.
36
What are the implications of the research on memory for eyewitness testimony?
This has significant consequences for legal proceedings.Understanding encoding and retrieval factors can improve the reliability of eyewitness memories --
37
What is autobiographical memory?
Autobiographical memory is defined as “memory for the events of one’s life” (Conway & Rubin, 1993), and it includes details about the spatio-temporal context of when and where events occurred.
38
What are two common methods for investigating autobiographical memory?
(1) Word cueing: recalling events in response to retrieval cues (e.g., Galton, 1883).
(2) Diary studies: writing down personal events (e.g., Linton, 1975).
39
What is the reminiscence bump, and what age range does it typically cover?
The reminiscence bump is a higher number of autobiographical memories from the 15-30 years old period. It's associated with the development of a stable adult self-concept or distinctiveness of events during that time.
40
What is infantile amnesia?
Infantile amnesia refers to the almost total absence of autobiographical memories from before the age of 5.
Memories between ages 2 and 5 are rare, and memories before age 2 are extremely unusual.
41
What are three theories that explain infantile amnesia?
(1) Organisation mismatch (Schachtel, 1947): Experience is organized differently before and after language development, leading to different encoding of memories.
(2) Repression (Freud, 1948): Unpleasant or highly charged memories are repressed into the unconscious.
(3) Memory system not fully formed (Nelson, 1998): Young children are better at recalling repeated events, and some memory systems are not fully developed in early childhood.
42
What is a common explanation for the reminiscence bump in older subjects regarding public events?
Older subjects tend to show a reminiscence bump for public events, possibly because events between ages 15 and 30 are more distinctive or significant (Schuman & Rieger, 1992).
43
How does the retention function relate to forgetting?
The retention function refers to the overall trend of increased forgetting over time, where memories decay gradually as time passes.
44
What is the main limitation of the word cueing method when investigating autobiographical memory?
The main limitation is that word cueing is unconstrained and unverifiable. It relies on subjective reports, which makes it difficult to ensure accuracy and reliability.
45
What are the characteristics typically rated when recalling memories using word cueing?
Characteristics such as vividness, detail, and importance of the recalled memory are typically rated.
46
What is Schachtel’s (1947) "organisation mismatch" theory about infantile amnesia?
Schachtel suggested that before language, a child's conscious experience is organized in perceptual rather than conceptual schemas. This mismatch in experience representation contributes to forgetting early memories.
47
According to Freud (1948), how does repression explain infantile amnesia?
Freud proposed that emotionally unpleasant or highly charged memories from early childhood are repressed by the conscious mind into the unconscious, leading to their absence in adulthood.
48
How does Nelson (1998) explain infantile amnesia in terms of brain development?
Nelson argued that brain development continues throughout early childhood, and while some memory systems may be fully formed, young children are better at describing familiar repeated events rather than specific incidents.
49
What is the significance of the "spatio-temporal context" in autobiographical memory?
The spatio-temporal context refers to the specific details about where and when a particular event occurred, which are key features of autobiographical memory.
50
What are diary studies in the context of autobiographical memory research, and who pioneered this method?
Diary studies involve individuals writing down personal events over time to track their autobiographical memory. Linton (1975) is one of the key researchers who used this method.
51
How do memories recalled from ages 2-5 differ from other memories in terms of sensory and affective elements?
Memories recalled from ages 2-5 tend to have more sensory and affective elements but lack a clear sense of temporal sequence or self.
52
What is the relevance of Galton’s (1883) work on word cueing in memory research?
Galton pioneered the word cueing technique, where subjects are given cue words to recall personally experienced memories, which helped lay the groundwork for understanding how cues trigger autobiographical memories.
53
How does Cohen & Faulkner’s (1988) explanation for the reminiscence bump differ from other theories?
Cohen & Faulkner suggested that events occurring between ages 15 and 30 are more distinctive than those at other ages, which might explain why more memories are recalled from this period.
54
Who is "S" in Luria’s (1968) study, and what was remarkable about his memory?
"S" was a mnemonist with an astoundingly good memory, capable of recalling long strings of numbers, words, and nonsense syllables without mistake. His memory was highly eidetic, meaning he could recall images with great precision.
55
What unusual characteristics did S’s memory have beyond eidetic ability?
S experienced synesthesia (cross-modal perception), where different senses were intertwined.
For example, he could "see" sounds during a classical concert, and he struggled with abstract concepts, metaphorical ideas, and understanding speech.
56
What is synesthesia, and how did it affect S’s memory?
Synesthesia is a condition where senses are cross-wired (e.g., hearing sounds may cause visual sensations).
In S's case, it allowed him to create strong visual associations, but it also impaired his ability to abstract general knowledge.
57
What was one of the downsides of S’s remarkable memory?
S had difficulty with metaphorical speech, abstracting general knowledge, and understanding complex concepts, as he was overly focused on the precise details he recalled.
58
Why is forgetting considered normal and desirable?
Forgetting helps prevent memory overload and allows us to prioritize more relevant information. It is a necessary process for cognitive functioning.
59
What is memory decay?
Memory decay refers to the physical deterioration of brain tissue or neural connections over time, leading to memory loss. It is one way in which we forget information.
60
: How did Ebbinghaus provide evidence for memory decay?
Ebbinghaus showed that memory naturally decays over time, as evidenced by his experiments with relearning nonsense syllables and tracking how retention decreased with time.
61
What is a limitation of Ebbinghaus's research on memory decay?
His research on relearning lists of nonsense syllables lacks ecological validity,
meaning it may not represent real-world memory processes, which involve more complex and meaningful information.
62
How did Linton’s diary studies (1982) examine memory decay?
Linton recorded two events every day over six years, rating them for importance, salience, and emotionality.
She re-read descriptions monthly to test her ability to recall the events.
63
What were Linton’s findings regarding the relationship between emotional importance and recall?
Linton found no strong correlation between the rated importance or emotionality of an event and its likelihood of being recalled later.
64
what does the coding specificity theory suggest about memory recall?
According to coding specificity theory, the characteristics of an event at the time of encoding (i.e., how it was experienced) only affect memorability if those same characteristics are present at the time of recall.
65
What are the two main types of forgetting?
(1) Decay: The memory trace is no longer available due to the passage of time since encoding.
(2) Interference: The memory trace is no longer accessible due to other activity since encoding.
66
How does interference affect memory, and in which directions can it operate?
nterference affects memory by making certain traces harder to access. It can operate both forwards (proactive interference) and backwards (retroactive interference) in time.
67
What is proactive interference, and how can it be released?
Proactive interference occurs when old memories interfere with learning new information. Wickens et al. (1963) found that this interference can be "released" by switching to new, unrelated material.
68
How did Linton (1978) study the effect of repeated access on forgetting?
Linton tracked how often she accessed and re-read events recorded in her diary and found that repeated access helped maintain memory. However, initial importance ratings didn’t always correspond to later recall success.
69
What does the control group performance on List A and List B suggest about interference?
the control group that learned only one list had better memory for it,
highlighting that learning multiple lists (as in the experimental group) creates interference that hinders recall.
70
What is the role of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in memory research?
TMS can be used to activate certain brain regions (e.g., those related to specific senses) to enhance memory performance. However, this approach is still being explored.
71
72
what is anterogade amnesia
can't form new memories (encoding issue)
73
what is retrograde amnesia
can't remember memories before event --- which caused brain damage (retrieval issue)
74
/ What is episodic memory?
Episodic memory is the ability to remember specific events from the past, supporting the retrieval of both content and context, and is associated with autonoetic consciousness, allowing humans to mentally place themselves in past or future events.
75
Why is recollective experience significant in memory studies?
Recollective experience, the process of truly remembering past events, is a key object of interest in memory research because it is fundamental to understanding how memory works.
76
What are the two distinct processes in dual-process models of memory?
The two distinct processes in dual-process models are **recollection** (true memory recall) and **familiarity** (a sense of knowing something without specific details).
77
What is recollection, and why is it considered the core process of episodic memory?
: Recollection is the retrieval of specific details from an episodic memory, and it is considered the core process based on evidence from behavioral studies, neuropsychology, and neuroimaging.
78
What is the role of verbal reports in investigating memory?
Verbal reports suggest that retrieval can be based on either a sense of familiarity or on true recollection, with **reaction time data** showing that familiarity operates faster than recollection.
79
How does familiarity differ from recollection in terms of speed?
Familiarity is a quicker process, whereas recollection is slower and involves retrieving specific details from memory.
80
What are the three main neuroimaging techniques used to investigate memory?
EEG/MEG: Measures neural and magnetic signals.
fMRI: Measures changes in magnetic properties of blood (oxygenation and deoxygenation).
PET: Injects radioisotopes to measure activity in the brain.
81
: How does an fMRI machine work?
An fMRI machine measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, specifically focusing on differences between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, reflecting which brain areas are active.
82
What pattern of brain activity is seen during memory tasks in an fMRI?
During memory tasks, fMRI shows increased activity in regions when words or items are remembered compared to when they are forgotten, suggesting these regions support retrieval success.
83
What does the difference in brain activity between 'hits' and 'correct rejections' indicate?
The difference reflects retrieval success, with brain regions showing more activity when an item is remembered than when it is not,
indicating their role in successful memory retrieval.
84
What is a **source memory test**, and why is it important?
A source memory test requires recollecting contextual information from a memory (e.g., color, list origin), helping to distinguish whether retrieval is based on **recollection** or mere **familiarity**.
85
: What is the procedure in a 2-stage source memory task?
In a 2-stage source memory task:
1) Study two separate lists of words.
2) At test, make an old/new judgment.
3) For words judged old, make a source judgment indicating which list the word came from.
86
How does brain activity differ between correct and incorrect source judgments?
Brain regions exhibit greater activity during correct source judgments,
indicating successful retrieval and suggesting these regions support **recollection** rather than familiarity.
87
How does fMRI help distinguish between familiarity and recollection processes?
fMRI reveals that specific brain regions are more active during episodic recollection compared to familiarity, helping to distinguish between these two memory processes.
88
What conclusion can be drawn from source retrieval patterns across brain regions?
source retrieval patterns suggest that brain regions associated with retrieval success are more consistent with **episodic recollection** rather than familiarity.
89
What is an Electroencephalogram (EEG)?
EEG is a method for measuring brain electrical activity, represented through brain waves, using electrodes attached to the scalp with saline gel.
90
How long does EEG setup typically take?
It takes around 45 minutes to set up an EEG, including attaching electrodes and preparing the subject.
91
What three steps are involved when using EEG for memory experiments?
1) Attach the **electro-cap**,
(2) use an **amplifier** to boost the signals, and
(3) present the subject with stimuli while recording the brain activity.
92
What does EEG data show?
EEG data shows fluctuations of voltage over time, which include brain electrical activity, eye blinks, or muscular movements.
93
How do EEG data fluctuations get processed into ERPs?
EEG data is averaged to create **Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)**. The averaging process eliminates random noise, revealing consistent patterns related to the stimuli.
94
Why do high-frequency activities disappear in ERP data?
High-frequency activity, often caused by muscle movements, gets averaged out, leaving only consistent brain activity related to the experiment’s stimuli.
95
What principle is used to average EEG signals into ERPs?
The principle is that random or variable brain activity will average out to zero, while consistent activity across trials will remain in the average.
96
What type of brain activity does an ERP reveal?
ERPs reveal brain activity that is consistently tied to a cognitive event or stimulus, such as a memory task.
97
How does EEG/ERP data distinguish between types of sentences in a memory task?
When participants listen to different types of sentences (e.g., containing an unexpected word like "tractor"),
ERP shows distinct cognitive variability based on semantic memory processing.
98
What happens during episodic memory tasks in EEG/ERP studies?
During episodic memory tasks, the ERP data shows differences in brain activity when participants recall specific details or events.
99
How is brain activity compared between recognizing old and new words in memory tasks?
By subtracting the ERP activity for 'correct rejections' (new word recognized as new) from 'hits' (old word recognized as old), researchers can isolate the brain activity specific to successful memory retrieval.
100
What does a topographic map in an EEG experiment represent?
A topographic map shows the distribution of brain activity across the scalp during a specific time window, with colors representing the intensity of neural activity.
101
What does ERP data reveal about "retrieval success"?
ERP data shows distinct patterns of neural activity associated with successfully retrieving a memory, termed 'retrieval success.'
102
What are the neural correlates of recollection as seen in ERP data?
ERP data shows increased activity in specific brain regions (e.g., around 500-800ms) during successful recollection of episodic memories, especially when subjects correctly remember details like the color associated with a word.
103
How does ERP differentiate between recollection and familiarity?
ERP shows two effects:
An **early mid-frontal effect** (300-500ms) linked to **familiarity**.
A **left parietal effect** (500-800ms) associated with **recollection.**
104
What neural evidence supports the distinction between recognition with recall and recognition alone?
ERP data shows distinct patterns:
Recognition with recall (recollection) produces a left parietal effect
, while recognition alone (familiarity) produces an early mid-frontal effect.
105
How do faces and words differ in terms of memory retrieval and ERP correlates?
Dual-process theories suggest that the neural processes supporting face and word retrieval differ.
People are more likely to falsely recognize a face than a word,
but also more likely to remember a name than a face.
106
How do cognitive demands differ between face and name recognition?
Although cognitive demands for recalling faces and names are similar, the neural processes supporting them are different, with face recognition relying more on different brain regions than name recall.
107
What does the standard model suggest about memory processes?
The standard model suggests that memory is not unitary and different aspects of memory can be lost or impaired independently of each other.
