Midterm 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Lecture 1:
What 3 things are involved in the study of motor learning?
A
1.) Acquisition of skill
2.) Performance enhancement of skills
3.) Reacquisition of skills (following injury)
2
Q
Lecture 1:
What does motor control study/focus on?
A
how neuromuscular system activates muscles
- motor control is used when learning a new skill
3
Q
Lecture 1:
What does motor development study?
A
Looks at motor behaviour & human development from infancy to older age
4
Q
Lecture 1:
What are the 3 factors influencing motor skill performance?
A
1.) The person
2.) The skill
3.) Performance Event
5
Q
Lecture 1:
What are motor skills vs actions?
A
Skills = activities with specific goals (action goals) & require voluntary control over movements
Actions = same as skill
6
Q
Lecture 1:
What are 4 key characteristics of motor skills & actions?
A
1.) Goal to achieve
2.) Voluntary performed
3.) Movement of joints
4.) Skills = learned/re-learned
7
Q
Lecture 1:
What are Neuromotor Processes?
A
Mechanisms within the nervous & muscular systems that control movements
8
Q
Lecture 1:
Why is it important to distinguish actions, movements, & neuromotor processes?
A
They represent the order that motor control & learning are prioritized (allows for people to move from novice to elite)
- different measures are used to measure the 3 concepts
9
Q
Lecture 1:
What are the 3 reasons why motor skills are classified?
A
1.) to identify similarities/differences
2.) identify demands
3.) developing principles related to skills
10
Q
Lecture 1:
What is the difference between gross motor skills & fine motor skills?
- provide example of each
A
They’re both one-dimensional but use different sizes of musculature
- Gross = large muscles used
- eg; walking, jumping, running
- Fine = small muscles controlled
- eg; skills involving hand-eye coordination
11
Q
Lecture 1:
What is the difference between discrete motor skills & continuous motor skills?
- provide example of each
A
They are both one-dimensional systems but have different specificity of where the skills movement begins & ends
- Discrete = specific beginning & end points & require simple movements
- eg; flipping a light switch on/off
- Continuous = random (arbitrary) beginning & end points & involves repetition
- eg; steering a car
12
Q
Lecture 1:
What are Serial Motor Skills?
A
Combination of discrete & continuous motor skills
- involves continuous series of discrete movements
- eg; shifting gears when driving stick
13
Q
Lecture 1:
What is Environmental Context when learning new motor skills?
- what are 3 specific features?
A
The physical location/setting in which a skill is performed
3 features = supporting surface, objects involved, & other people/animals
14
Q
Lecture 1:
When discussing stability of the environmental context, what are Closed vs Open motor skills?
A
Closed = stationary supporting surface, object, &/or people/animal & performer determines when to start action
- eg; picking up a cup while sitting at a table or set play in a solo sport
Open = supporting surface, object, &/or animal/people are in motion & environmental context in motion determines when action begins
- eg; catching a thrown ball
15
Q
Lecture 1:
When discussing Gentile’s Taxonomy of Tasks; what are Regulatory Conditions?
A
environmental conditions that cause a change in movement to achieve action goal
- eg; team sports that depend on others movements
16
Q
Lecture 1:
When discussing Gentile’s Taxonomy of Tasks; what are Non-Regulatory Conditions?
A
environmental conditions that have no influence on movements
- eg; running on a track, small differences don’t impact own movement/task outcome
17
Q
Lecture 1:
When discussing Gentile’s Taxonomy of Tasks; what is Intertrial Variability?
A
Variations in regulatory conditions associated with performance that change or stay the same from one trial try to the next
- eg; walking through grocery store, as isles and people are changing but actions aren’t necessarily
18
Q
Lecture 1:
What are 2 examples of motor skills under Stationary Regulatory Conditions with no intertrial variability?
A
1.) free throws in basketball
2.) walking in an uncluttered hallway
19
Q
Lecture 1:
What are 2 examples of motor skills under Stationary Regulatory Conditions with intertrial variability?
A
1.) golf shots during a round of golf
2.) taking several drinks of water from the same glass
20
Q
Lecture 1:
What are 2 examples of motor skills under In-Motion Regulatory Conditions with no intertrial variability?
A
1.) hitting tennis balls projected at the same speed from a ball machine
2.) walking on a treadmill at a constant speed
21
Q
Lecture 1:
What are 2 examples of motor skills under In-Motion Regulatory Conditions with intertrial variability?
A
1.) hitting a tennis ball during a rally game
2.) walking through a crowded hallway
22
Q
Lecture 1:
What are the 3 functions behind a motor skill action?
A
1.) Body Stability - skills involve no change in body location
2.) Body Transport - active & passsive changes of body locations (depends on environmental movements)
3.) Object Manipulation - maintaining/changing position of moveable objects (changing how you hold your stick when shooting rings)
23
Q
Lecture 3:
What is Ability?
A
Trait that determines an individuals achievement potential for the performance goal
24
Q
Lecture 3:
What is Motor Ability?
A
Ability specifically related to the motor skill performance
- everyone had a variety of these abilities
25
Lecture 3:
What are 3 factors that influence motor abilities and level of performance successes?
1.) Amount of practice
2.) level & amount of instruction
3.) motivation to perform the skill
26
Lecture 3:
What are the 2 general Hypotheses of abilities?
1.) General Motors Ability Hypothesis
2.) Specificity of motor ability hypothesis
27
Lecture 3:
What is the General Motor Ability Hypothesis?
That many motor abilities are highly related & can be grouped as a single, global motor ability
28
Lecture 3:
What is the Specificity of Motor Ability Hypothesis?
That many motor abilities are relatively independent in an individual
29
Lecture 3:
What is Balance & it’s 2 types?
Balance = postural stability
2 types = static balance ( stationary eg yoga) & dynamic balance (moving eg hoping from one ski to the other)
30
Lecture 3:
Are static & dynamic balances related or independent?
Static & dynamic balances are 2 independent balance abilities & they must be viewed as a multidimensional ability
31
Lecture 3:
What is External Timing?
Move to timing based on external sources
- eg; starting a sprint in track and field
32
Lecture 3:
What is Internal Timing?
Timing of movement based on a persons internal representation of time (self-paced)
- eg; maintaining rhythm in dance without music
33
Lecture 3:
When identifying motor abilities, what is Fleishmans Taxonomy of Motor Abilities?
Described 11 perceptual-motor abilities & used to define the fewest independent ability categories which might be most useful in defining performance in the widest variety of tasks
34
Lecture 3:
What is Multi-limb Coordination? (Fleishmans taxonomy)
One’s ability to coordinate movements of a number of limbs simultaneously
- eg; playing piano
35
Lecture 3:
What is Response Orientation? (Fleishmans taxonomy)
Ones ability to make a rapid selection of controls to be moved
-eg; soccer player dribbling past defender
36
Lecture 3:
What is Manual Dexterity? (Fleishmans taxonomy)
Ones ability to make skillful hand-arm movements to manipulate large objects with speed
- eg; dribbling basketball while running
37
Lecture 3:
What are Motor Ability Tests used for & why?
predict future performance, evaluates causes of performance deficiencies, & assess effectiveness of interventions
38
Lecture 2:
What are 2 things that are included in Performance Measurement?
1.) determine what should be measured
2.) determine how this can be measured
39
Lecture 2:
What are the 2 general categories of Motor Skill Measurement?
1.) Performance outcome measures
2.) Performance Production measures
40
Lecture 2:
What are Performance Outcome Measures & what do they indicate?
Indicate the outcome/result of performing a motor skill
- does not discuss the movements leading to the outcome
- does not provide information about various muscle activities involved in action
41
Lecture 2:
What are Performance Production Measures & what do they indicate?
More favourable measures & typically performed in a lab
- indicates how nervous, muscular, & skeletal systems function to perform the motor skill
42
Lecture 2:
What is reaction time (RT)?
Measure of how long it takes to prepare & initiate a movement
- stimulus or “go signal” indicates the action
43
Lecture 2:
What are a few motor skill performance examples where reaction time is important?
Any ball sport, goalies, F1 driving, etc
44
Lecture 2:
What are 3 ways reaction time is used in performance assessment?
1.) asses how quickly someone can initiate a required movement
2.) identify environmental context information that is used to prepare for required action
3.) assesses capabilities to anticipate a required action & when to initiate it
45
Lecture 2:
What are the 3 types for reaction time tests?
1.) Simple RT
2.) Choice RT
3.) Discrimination RT
46
Lecture 2:
What is an EMG & what does it stand for?
Electromyography recording indicates the time that a muscle has increasing activity after a stimulus signal has occurred
47
Lecture 2:
What are the 2 components of Fractured Reaction Time?
1.) Premotor Time - time b/w onset of stimulus & beginning of muscle activity
2.) Motor Time - time from increase in muscle activity until actual movement of limb
48
Lecture 2:
What are Error Measures & what do they allow for?
Allow for performance evaluation from skills with spatial or temporal accuracy action goals
49
Lecture 2:
What are three types of error messages?
1.) Absolute Error (AE)
2.) Constant Error
3.) Variable Error
50
Lecture 2:
What is Absolute Error?
The absolute different between the actual performance on each trial & criterion (target) for each trial
- provides a general index of performance accuracy
51
Lecture 2:
What is Constant Error?
A signed deviation (negative or positive) from the target/criterion
- serves as a measure of performance bias
52
Lecture 2:
What is Variable Error?
The standard deviation of the CE scores for the series of repetitions
53
Lecture 2:
What is Radial Error?
The general accuracy measure for 2-dimensional situations
54
Lecture 2:
What is Root-Mean Squared Error (RMSE)?
Commonly used error score for continuous skills as it looks @ error in a way to learn from it
55
Lecture 2:
What is Kinematics?
- 3 things included in kinematics
A description of motion without regard to force or mass
- includes displacement, velocity, & acceleration
56
Lecture 2:
What are the 3 kinematic measures?
- explain each
1.) Displacement - change in the spatial position of a limb or joint during a movement (change of angles)
2.) Velocity - rate of change of an objects position with respect to time
3.) Acceleration - change in velocity (speed) during movement
57
Lecture 2:
What is Kinetics?
Studies forces that cause motion to occur & are involved with movement
- involves external & internal forces
58
Lecture 2:
What is joint torque/rotary force?
The effect a force has on rotation of body segments around their axes
59
Lecture 2:
When discussing muscle activity measures, What is an Electromyography (EMG)?
The recording of electrical activity of a muscle group/group of muscles
- used to find when a muscles activation begins & ends
60
Lecture 2:
When discussing muscle activity measures, What is a Whole Muscle Mechanomyograohy (wMMG)?
measures lateral displacements of a muscle’s belly following maximal stimulation
- looks at time when muscle is actually producing force
61
Lecture 2:
When discussing muscle activity measures, What is a Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)?
Determines the level of oxygenation in the muscle
62
Lecture 2:
What is the Electroencephalography (EEG) brain activity measuring tool?
EEG measures the electrical activity in the brain
63
Lecture 2:
What is the Positron Emission Topography (PET) brain activity measuring tool?
A neuroimaging techniques that measures blood flow in the brain & can detect activated brain regions
- patient drinks a radioactive isotope to get it into blood stream and show colours on the scan of high &/or low blood flow/activity
64
Lecture 2:
What is the Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) brain activity measuring tool?
A neuroimaging technique that measures blood flow changed through detecting O2 levels during performance in the MRI scanner
65
Lecture 2:
What is the Magnetoencephalography (MEG) brain activity measuring tool?
Assesses magnetic fields created by neuronal activity in brain
66
Lecture 2:
What is the Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) brain activity measuring tool?
A short burst of magnetic waves are directed towards a specific area of the brains cortex & is a noninvasive method of assessing brain activity
67
Lecture 2:
How is coordination measured & 2 ways it can be done
Coordination measurement assesses the movement relationship between joints/limbs & body segments
- 2 types of qualitative measurements = cross-correlation technique & relative phase
68
Lecture 4:
What is a Neuron?
- size?
Neuron = Nerve Cell
- basic component of hte nervous system
- 4 to 100 microns (1/3 the width of 1 hair strand)
69
Lecture 4:
What are the 3 general structures that compose the neuron?
1.) Cell Body - home to the nucleus
2.) Dendrites - extensions from cell body, 0-thousands per neuron (receive info from other neurons)
3.) Axon - “nerve fibre” - one axon per neuron & have myelinated sheath
70
Lecture 4:
What are the 3 main categories of Neurons?
- location of each (central or peripheral)?
1.) Sensory Neurons (Afferent) - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
2.) Motor Neurons (Efferent) - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
3.) Interneurons - Central Nervous System (CNS)
71
Lecture 4:
What are Sensory Neurons?
- unipolar or multipolar?
Afferent neurons that send neural impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors
- unipolar neurons as they have one axon & no dendrites
72
Lecture 4:
What are Motor Neurons?
- unipolar or multipolar?
Efferent neurons that relay signals form the CNS to the PNS to cause a reaction (eg muscle contraction)
- receive a signal to form an action
multipolar neurons as each has one axon and several dendrites.
73
Lecture 4:
What are 2 types of Motor Neurons?
- their location and functions?
1.) Alpha Motor Neuorns - in spinal cord & have long branching axons connecting to skeletal muscle fibres
2.) Gamma Motor Neurons - supply intrafusal fibres of skeletal muscle
74
Lecture 4:
When talking about Gamma Motor Neurons, what are Intrafusal Fibres?
Areas of skeletal muscle that control tension & help with reflexes
75
Lecture 4:
What are Interneurons?
Specialized neurons that start & end at the brain or spinal cord
76
Lecture 4:
What are the 2 things that Interneurons function as connections between?
Connect axons leaving the brain to motor neurons
And connect axons from sensory & spinal nerves to the brain
77
Lecture 4:
In the CNS; what 4 structures directly influence movement control?
1.) Cerebrum **main one
2.) Diencephalon
3.) Cerebellum
4.) Brainstem
78
Lecture 4:
What is the Cerebrum?
left & right hemisphers connected by corpus callosum
- cerebral cortex covers the cerebrum
79
Lecture 4:
Describe the Cerebral cortex
Lining that covers the cerebrum & composed of grey tissue
- has ridges called “Gyrus” & grooves called “Sulcus”
80
Lecture 4:
What are the 2 types of cortical neuron cells?
Cortical neurons = neurons in the brain
1.) Pyramidal Cells
2.) Nonpyramidal Cells
81
Lecture 4:
What are the 4 lobes of the Cerebral Cortex?
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, & Temporal
82
Lecture 4:
What is the Sensory Cortex?
Behind the central sulcus of the cerebral cortex
- specific sensory info transmitted through sensory nerves to sensory cortex & receives that specific type of information
83
Lecture 4:
When discussing the Cerebral Cortex; what is the Primary Motor Cortex?
- location, structure & function?
- Location = frontal lobe & anterior to central sulcus
- Structure = has motor neurons that send axons to specific muscles in body
- Function = critical for movement initiation & coordination of fine motor skill movements
- involved in learning postural coordination
84
Lecture 4:
When discussing the Cerebral Cortex; what is the Premotor Area?
- location & function?
- Location = anterior to primary motor cortex
- Function = control organization of movements before initiated & controls rhythmic coordination during movement
85
Lecture 4:
When discussing the Cerebral Cortex; what is the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)?
- location & function?
- Location = medial surface of the frontal lobe, adjacent to primary motor cortex
- Function = controls sequential movements & helps with preparation/organization of movement
- reaction time is produced here
86
Lecture 4:
When discussing the Cerebral Cortex; what is the Parietal Lobe?
- location & function?
- Location = behind frontal lobe & central sulcus & above temporal lobe
- Function = interacts with premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, & SMA before & during a movement
87
Lecture 4:
What is the Basal Ganglia?
- location & function?
Found in the Subcortical Brain Area
- receives neural information from cerebral cortex & brainstem
- plays a critical role in controlling movement
88
Lecture 4:
What are the 3 ways that the Basal Ganglia aid in the control of movement?
1.) Planning & initiation of movement
2.) Control of antagonist muscles during movement
3.) Control of force
89
Lecture 4:
What is the importance of antagonist muscles when discussing movement control?
Antagonist muscles are the muscles opposite of the working muscles
- it is important to control these muscles as it allows for smooth & controlled movements of the working muscles
90
Lecture 4:
What is Parkinson’s Disease and how does it develop?
Common disease associated with basal ganglia dysfunction that causes motor control problems
- lack of dopamine produced by substantia nigra
91
Lecture 4:
What are 4 motor control problems caused by Parkinson’s disease
1.) Bradykinesia (slow movements)
2.) Akinesia (reduced amount of movement)
3.) Rigidity of muscles
4.) Tremor
92
Lecture 4:
What is the Diencephalon?
- 2 groups of nuclei found here?
Function = hormonal release & receiving sensory/motor signals
- Contains the thalamus & hypothalamus
93
Lecture 4:
What is the main function of the thalamus (found in the diencephalon)?
relay station between right & left hemispheres
- receives & integrates sensory info from spinal cord & brain stem to cerebral cortex
- controls attention and perceptions
94
Lecture 4:
What is the main function of the Hypothalamus (found in the diencephalon)?
Controls the endocrine system & regulates homeostasis in the body
95
Lecture 4:
Where is the cerebellum located & what structures does it have?
Location = behind the cerebral hemispheres & attached to the brainstem
Structure = Cerebellar cortex covering & divided into 2 hemispheres
- sensory neural pathways come from brainstem, cerebral cortex, & spinal cord
96
Lecture 4:
What are a few main functions of the Cerebellum?
1.) Control of smooth & accurate movements
2.) Detects & corrects movement errors
3.) used for controlling hand-eye coordination, movement timing, & postural control
4.) involved in learning motor skills
97
Lecture 4:
What is the Brainstem?
- location & 3 components?
Consists of lots of white & grey matter and is Located beneath the cerebral hemispheres & connects to spinal cord
- 3 components = pons, medulla, & reticular formation
98
Lecture 4:
What is the Pons of the brainstem?
Involved in control of body functions & balance (eg; chewing)
99
Lecture 4:
What is the Medulla of the brainstem?
The regulatory centre for internal physiologic processes (eg; breathing)
100
Lecture 4:
What is the Reticular Formation of the brainstem?
The integrator of sensory & motor neural impulses that can inhibit of activate the CNS to influences skeletal muscle activity
101
Lecture 4:
What is the Spinal Cord?
- structure of it?
A complex neural system critical to motor control processes
- formed from Gray Matter
102
Lecture 4:
In the spinal cord, what is Grey Matter?
- formation?
The H-Shaped central portion of the cord that has cell bodies & axons of neurons running through it
- Contains 2 pairs of “horns”
103
Lecture 4:
What are the 2 Types of “Horns” in the Spinal Cord?
1.) Dorsal (posterior) horns - cells transmit sensory info
2.) Ventral (anterior) horns - alpha motor neurons that have axons terminating at skeletal muscles
- interneurons (Renshaw cells) also located int he V.H
104
Lecture 4:
What are a few Sensory Neural Pathways?
Several Neural Tracts (ascending tracts) that pass through spinal cord & brain stem to cerebral cortex & cerebellum
- 2 ascending tracts to sensory cortex for control of voluntary movement are; Dorsal Column & Anterolateral System
- Spinocerebellar Tracts transmit proprioceptive information to the cerebellum
105
Lecture 4:
What are a few Motor Neural Pathways?
- ascending or descending?
- 2 classifications?
Several motor pathways (descending tracts) that descended from brain to spinal cord & are classified as Pyramidal Tracts or Extrapyramidal Tracts
106
Lecture 4:
What are Pyramidal vs Extrapyramidal tracts of motor neural pathways?
Pyramidal Tracts = corticospinal tracts
- 60% from primary motor cortex
- involved in control of fine motor skill performance
- fibres cross (decussation) at medulla to other side of body & continue down lateral column of spinal cord
Extrapyramidal Tracts = Brainstem pathways
- fibres do not cross
- Postural control & hand/finger control
107
Lecture 4:
What is a Motor Unit?
- role of alpha motor neuron?
The end of motor neural information transmission
- motor unit includes an alpha motor neuron & all muscle fibres it innervates (all connected muscle fibres contract when alpha is firing/activated) {approx 200,000 alpha motor neurons in spinal cord}
108
Lecture 4:
What determines how many muscle fibres are served by a motor unit?
Depends on the type of movement associated with the muscle
- Fine Motor Movements = smallest # of muscle fibres per motor unit
- Gross Motor Movements = largest # of muscle fibres per motor unit (as many as 700)
109
Lecture 4:
What is Motor Unit Recruitment?
Allows for more motor units to be activated or increased frequency of stimulation to produce more force in the single motor unit
- recruitment follows a specific procedure that involves motor neuron size
110
Lecture 4:
What are the specific procedures that motor unit recruitment follows?
Specific procedure for recruitment involves motor neuron size
1.) Size - motor neuron cell body diameter
2.) Size Principle - recruit the smallest (weakest) units first than systemically increase size recruited
111
Lecture 4:
What is the Neural Control of Voluntary Movement?
Performing motor skills typically begins wth cognitively derived intent based on the dictates of the situation/needs of the person
112
Lecture 5:
What is a Theory?
describes a large class of observations & makes definite predictions about the results
- provide a “why” basis
113
Lecture 5:
What are 2 main things that Motor Learning & Control theories focus on?
1.) Explaining motor behaviour
2.) Providing explanations about why people perform skills as they do
114
Lecture 5:
What is the Motor Control Theory?
Explains how nervous system produces coordinated movement to perform various motor skills
115
Lecture 5:
What are the 2 essential issues for motor control when discussing the Motor Control Theory?
1.) Meaning of Coordination
2.) The degrees of freedom problem
116
Lecture 5:
What is Coordination?
Coordination = patterning of head, body, & limb movements relative to the environmental objects & events
- consider movement coordination in relation to context the skill is performed
117
Lecture 5:
What are Degrees of Freedom?
- what is the problem with this?
- relation to motor control theory?
Df = # of independent components in a control system & the # of ways each can vary
Problem = control problem in designing of complex system must produce a specific result
Determination of actual # of df’s depends on which level of control we are considering
118
Lecture 5:
What is the purpose of Open & Closed Loop Control Systems?
They are incorporated into all theories of motor control as they show different ways the CNS & PNS initiate & control actions
- their role os to generate & forward movement instructions to effectors
119
Lecture 5:
What are Open-Loop Systems?
Open-loop systems do NOT use feedback
- their instructions contain all the information needed for the effectors to carry out the movement
- examples; kicking a ball, striking a golf ball, darts, etc
- eg; if darts, than you wouldn’t know of you hit the target or not if your eyes were closed as there is no feedback
120
Lecture 5:
What are Closed-Loop systems?
- examples?
Systems that use feedback to cause a motor response
- the control centre issues information to effectors sufficient to initiate movement
- relies on feedback to start & stop movements
- example; nascar racing, hockey games, etc
121
Lecture 5:
What are 2 Theories of Motor Control?
1.) Motor Program - memory-based construct that controls coordinated movements (“what you think you should do”)
- eg; getting out of bed {basically do it the same each day}
2.) Dynamical Systems Theory - emphasizes role of info in the environment & mechanical properties of the body
- eg; how the environment, conditions, & teams effect movements
122
Lecture 5:
What is the Motor Program-Based Theory?
Generalized Motor Program (GMP) Characteristics - proposed that each GMP controls a class of actions identified by common invariant characteristics
- 2 categories of GMP characteristics = Invarient features & Parameters
123
Lecture 5:
When discussing GMP characteristics of the motor program-based theory, what are Invariant features?
Invariant Features = characteristics that do not vary across performances of a skill within class of actions (memories of movements)
124
Lecture 5:
When discussing GMP characteristics of the motor program-based theory, what are Parameters?
Parameters = movement-related features of the performances of an action that can be varied from one performance to another
- eg; how you walk on ice vs how you walk on the sidewalk
125
Lecture 5:
What is one example of an Invariant Feature of the Motor Program-based Theory?
The relative time of the components of a skill
- invariant = the percentages or proportions of the overall duration
126
Lecture 5:
What is one example of a Parameter of the Motor Program-based Theory?
The overall duration & the muscles used to perform a skill
127
Lecture 5:
What is the Dynamical Systems Theory?
Describes control of coordinated movement by emphasizing the role of environmental information & dynamic properties of the body & limbs
- began influencing motor control views in 1980’s
128
Lecture 5:
What is the Dynamical Systems Theory Concerned with?
Concerned with identifying laws for understanding how a system changes from one stable state to another due to a particular variable
129
Lecture 5:
What are 2 main concepts based on Non-Linear Dynamics?
1.) behavioural changes are not always continuous, linear progressions but often sudden/abrupt
2.) systematic change in one variable can cause a nonlinear change in human coordinated movement
130
Lecture 5:
What are Attractors?
- the 3 attractor characteristics?
The steady behavioural states of systems
1.) Preferred behavioural states
2.) Represents stable regions of operation a system is allowed to operate in its preferred manner
3.) Energy-efficient states
131
Lecture 5:
What are Order Parameters?
Specific variables that define overall behaviour of a system & allow a coordinated movements pattern to be distinguished from others
- also called “collective variables”
132
Lecture 5:
What is a control Parameter?
A variable that will influence stability & character of a parameter’s order when increased or decreased
133
Lecture 5:
What is Self-Organization?
- provide an example
A behaviour that emerges in response to a particular set of constraints
- Example; bimanual finger-movement tasks —> the “in-phase” coordination pattern changed as movement speed increased
134
Lecture 5:
What are Coordinative Structures (Muscle Synergies)?
Groups of muscles/joints constrained by the nervous system to act as functional units & to act cooperatively to produce an action
- can be intrinsic or developed through practice
135
Lecture 5:
What is Perception-Action Coupling?
Linkage between information specifying the body/environment & action control
136
Lecture 5:
In Perception-Action Coupling, what is the “Perception” part?
The detection & utilization of critical information for controlling actions
137
Lecture 5:
In Perception-Action Coupling, what is the “Action” part?
Movement control features that are regulated & a allow someone to achieve an action goal
138
Lecture 5:
What is an example of Perception-Action Coupling?
When walking, your stepping action is coupled with your visual perception of the approaching objects
139
Lecture 5:
What are affordances?
- give example
The fit between characteristics of the person & the environment that allow certain actions to happen
- eg; leg length to stair height ratio determines if a set of stairs is climable
140
Lecture 5:
What is the OPTIMAL Theory of Motor Learning & the 3 issues it Focusses on?
New theory by Gabrielle Wulf & Rebecca Lewthwaite that Focusses on 3 issues;
1.) Conditions that enhance expendancies for future performance
2.) variables that influence a learners autonomy
3.) external focus of attention on the intended movement effect
141
Lecture 6:
What are the 3 sensory information systems that help in controlling action?
Touch, vision, & proprioception
142
Lecture 6:
How does touch help with motor control?
It acts as a feedback mechanism to provide CNS with temperature, pain, & movement information using mechanoreceptors
143
Lecture 6:
What are Mechanoreceptors?
Receptors just below the skins surface (in the dermis) that provides temperature, pain, & movement feedback to the CNS
- greatest # of these receptors in fingertips
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Lecture 6:
What are the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation?
1.) Meissner’s Corpuscle
2.) Merkel’s Corpuscle
3.) Free Neuron Ending
4.) Pacinian Corpuscles
5.) Ruffini Corpuscle
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Lecture 6:
Of the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation, What are Meissner’s Corpuscle?
Fast adapting & senses touch & pressure
- high desensitization levels in these as they can quickly ignore pressure
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Lecture 6:
Of the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation, What are Merkel’s Corpuscle?
Slowly adapting mechanoreceptor that responds to touch & pressure
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Lecture 6:
Of the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation, What are Free Neuron Endings?
Slowly adapting & includes nocioceptors, itch receptors, thermoreceptors, & mechanoreceptors
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Lecture 6:
Of the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation, What are Pacinian Corpuscles?
Rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors that sense vibration & deep pressure
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Lecture 6:
Of the 5 types of skin receptors involved in tactile sensation, What are Ruffini Corpuscle?
Slowly adapting mechanoreceptors that detect skin stretch
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Lecture 6:
What are the 4 roles of Tactile Senses?
1.) Accuracy
2.) Consistency - way to learn
3.) Timing - can relate to next time
4.) Force Adjustments - tactile element helps with timing & accuracy
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Lecture 6:
What is Proprioception?
The sensation & perception of limb, trunk, & head position & movement characteristics
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Lecture 6:
What are Proprioceptors?
- where are they located?
Specialized sensory neurons that send proproioception information to the CNS
- located in muscles, tendons, ligaments, & joints
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Lecture 6:
What are 3 primary types of Proprioceptors?
1.) Muscle Spindles
2.) Golgi-tendon organs
3.) Joint receptors
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Lecture 6:
When discussing Muscle Spindles, what are intrafusal muscle fibres?
Specialized muscle fibres that contain a capsule with both sensory receptors & muscle fibers
- parallel with extrafusal muscle fibres & attach directly to the muscle sheath
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Lecture 6:
What type of axons attach to Muscle Spindles?
Type 1a axons - wrap around middle of Intrafusal muscle fibres & detect changes in muscle length & velocity of length changes
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Lecture 6:
What do Muscle Spindles detect & what is their role?
Detect changes in joint angles in one axis & act as a feedback mechanism in controlling voluntary movement
- Sends info about movement characteristics of position, direction, & velocity & sense of effort to the CNS
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Lecture 6:
What are Golgi-Tendon Organs? (GTO’s)
- what type of axons?
Proprioceptors in skeletal muscle near tendon insertion points
- have type 1b sensory axons that detect muscle tension/force changes
- aren’t good at detecting muscle length changes
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Lecture 6:
What are Joint Receptors?
Include several types of proprioceptors located in joint capsules & ligaments
- respond to changes in force & rotation applied to joints such as; movement angles, mostly @ extreme limits
- effected if someone gets a joint replacement
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Lecture 6:
What is Surgical Deafferentation?
When afferent neural pathways associated with movements of interest have been surgically removed/altered
- Deafferentation could occur because of Sensory neuropathy
- when large myelinated fibres of the limb are lost, causing a loss of all sensory info except pain & temp
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Lecture 6:
What are the 3 Main Roles of Proprioception in Motor Control?
1.) Movement Accuracy - due to specific kinematic & kinetic feedback provided by CNS proprioceptors & feedback about limb displacement allows for spatial position corrections
2.) Timing of onset of Motor Commands
3.) Coordination of Body & Limb Segments - postural control & spatial-temporal coupling between limbs & limb segments
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Lecture 6:
How does Vision aid in Motor Control?
It is the preferred source of sensory information that provides evidence from everyday experiences
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Lecture 6:
When investigating the role of vision in motor control, what is Eye Movement Recording?
Requires specialized equipment that tracks the movement of the eyes & records where the eyes are “looking” at a particular time
- records displacement of foveal vision for secretion time interval
- looks at place & length of time person fixates gaze while tracking
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Lecture 6:
When investigating the role of vision in motor control, what are Temporal Occultation Techniques?
Uses special visual occlusion spectacles & a video is stopped at various times
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Lecture 6:
Monocular vs Binocular Vision:
Monocular = important for close up vision, weaker vision control info,
Binocular = important for depth perception, provides better movement control info, & provides info that helps intercept moving objects
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Lecture 6:
What is Central Vision?
Also called Foveal Vission
- detects info in the middle of 2-5 degrees of visual field
- provides specific information needed to achieve action goals
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Lecture 6:
How does Central Vision help for reaching & grasping objects?
- for walking on a pathway?
Central vision contributes to controlling limb transport to the object & grasping it
- helps for walking on a path by providing specific pathway info to stay on it & avoid obstacles
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Lecture 6:
What is Peripheral Vision?
Detects information beyond central vision limits
- visual field about 200deg horizontally & 160deg vertically
Provides info about environmental contexts & moving limbs
- important for utilizing optic flow
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Lecture 6:
What is optical Flow?
The moving pattern of light rays that strikes the retina from all parts of the environment when head moves through space
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Lecture 6:
What are the 2 visual systems of Central & Peripheral Vision?
1.) Vision-for-perception (ventral stream)
2.) Vision-for-action (dorsal stream)
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Lecture 6:
When discussing visual systems, what is the Vision-for-Perception (ventral stream) system?
Used to analyze the visual scene into form, colour, & features
- anatomically processes information from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe
-typically available to consciousness
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Lecture 6:
When discussing visual systems, what is the Vision-for-Action (dorsal stream) system?
Used to detect spatial characteristics of a scene & guiding movement
- anatomically processes info from primary visual cortex to posterior parietal cortex
- typically not available to consciousness
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Lecture 6:
How does Perception-Action Coupling apply to the Visual systems?
Enables precise coupling between the body & the environment
- experiments show that spatial & temporal characteristics of limb movements occurred together with specific characteristics of eye movements
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Lecture 7:
What is the trade-off during speed-accuracy skills?
Increasing speed yields decreasing accuracy & vice versa
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Lecture 7:
When discussing Speed-Accuracy Skills, What is Fitts’ Law?
Paul Fitts (1954) found that movement time for speed-accuracy skills could be mathematically calculated.
- Must know movements distance & target size to solve for MT
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Lecture 7:
As per Fitts’ Law, what is the formula for calculating MT?
MT = a + b log2 (2D/W)
** further found that index of difficulty could be calculated with; log2(2D/W)
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Lecture 7:
What are 4 ways that Fitts’ Law can be applied to Non-Laboratory skills?
1.) Throwing darts @ a target
2.) Reaching & grasping containers of different sizes
3.) Moving a cursor on a computer screen
4.) Playing a piano
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Lecture 7:
What are the 2 motor control processes involved in performance of speed-accuracy skills?
1.) Open-loop control
2.) Closed-loop control
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Lecture 7:
How is the Open-Loop Control System involved in speed-accuracy skills?
Initial movements of speed, direction, & accuracy are under CNS control without feedback
- moves the limb into the vicinity of the target
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Lecture 7:
How is the Closed-Loop Control System involved in speed-accuracy skills?
Provides visual feedback about limb’s relative position to the target & is used to guide the “homing in” phase of the limb
- ensures accurate landing on the target
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Lecture 7:
What are the 3 Phases of Speed-Accuracy Skills?
1.) Preparation Phase
2.) Initial Flight Phase
3.) Termination Phase
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Lecture 7:
What is the Preparation Phase of the 3 Phases of Speed-Accuracy Skills?
First phase where person uses vision to determine regulatory conditions that characterize the environmental context of the action
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Lecture 7:
What is the Initial Flight Phase of the 3 Phases of Speed-Accuracy Skills?
Second phase where vision acquires limb displacement & velocity information & acquires time-to-contact info for later use when movement is closer to the target
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Lecture 7:
What is the Termination Phase of the 3 Phases of Speed-Accuracy Skills?
Behind just before & ends when the target is it
- eg; when the key is inserted in the keyhole
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Lecture 7:
What is Prehension & its 3 components?
Term for actions involving reaching for & grasping objects
3 components; transport, grasp, & object manipulation
- prehension shows hoe muscles & joints involved in complex actions cooperate synergistically as a coordinative structure
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Lecture 7:
When discussing prehension, how do the transport & grasp components relate?
Initially they were relatively independent but recent research says they are temporarily coupled & interact synergistically
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Lecture 7:
How does Vision aid in Prehension?
Assists in action planning by providing information on regulatory conditions of the environment
- helps transport hand to object as visual feedback is used by CNS to modify such movements
- helps to grasp the object as it supplements tactile & proprioceptive feedback
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Lecture 7:
How does Prehension correlate with Fitts’ Law?
Prehension demonstrates the speed-accuracy trade off characteristics predicted by Fitts’ law
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Lecture 7:
What is Handwriting Motor Control?
Different motor control mechanisms for how people write & what they write
- much individual variation in limb segment involvement
- demonstrates characteristics of a coordinated structure bc its motor equivalence capability
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Lecture 7:
When talking about motor control of handwriting, what is Motor Equivalence?
Describes how someone can adapt to various writing demands such as; adjusting size, force, &
- can also adapt muscle involvement to accommodate other demands (eg; writing on different surfaces)
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Lecture 7:
What are Bimanual Coordination skills?
Motor skills requiring simultaneous use of 2 arms
- arms may move with same or different spatial &/or temporal characteristics (symmetric or asymmetric)
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Lecture 7:
How do preferences impact bimanual coordination?
Inherent preferences of the motor control system for controlling limb movements makes bimanual coordination more difficult
- motor control systems prefer symmetry
- with practice, disassociation between the 2 arms is learned when needed to perform the skill
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Lecture 7:
What are the 3 Phases of Catching a Moving Object?
1.) Initial positioning of arm & hand
2.) Shaping of hand to catch the object
3.) Grasping the object with your fingers
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Lecture 7:
How does vision help with Catching an Object?
Constant visual contact is needed during the initial flight portion & just before hand contact
- brief intermittent visual snapshots are sufficient between these 2 critical periods
- visual system uses looming to determine when the person will contact the object
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Lecture 7:
What is Locomotion?
- hwo is it controlled?
The ability to move from one place to another
- Central pattern Generators (CPG) in spinal cord help control locomotion (gait)
- these provide basis for stereotypic rhythmicity of walking/running gait patterns
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Lecture 7:
How can Gait be influenced in Locomotion?
Proprioceptive feedback from muscle spindles & Golgi-tendon organs can influence gait patterns
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Lecture 7:
What is the Rhythmic Structure of Locomotion & its importance?
Distinct rhythmic structures of different locomotions that are based on the analysis s of the 4 step-cycle components
- analyzing rhythmic structure allows for assessing coordination problems in trunk & legs
-
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Lecture 7:
What are Gait Transitions in Locomotion & Why do there occur?
Import act locomotion characteristic where people spontaneously change from a walking to running hair at critical speeds
- occurs mostly to minimize metabolic energy use but no single reason has been determines
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Lecture 7:
What is the role of Vision during Locomotion?
Vision enables us to avoid or contact an object during locomotion
- when contacting objects, tau is used as a basis for accurate contact
- when avoiding contact, vision provides the motor system with advanced information about how the body can avoid contact & the body orients accordingly
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Lecture 8:
What are the 2 things that action preparation occurs between?
Action intention & initiation of movement
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Lecture 8:
When discussing action preparation & time, what are the main steps on the RT index (diagram) from signal to termination?
1.) warning signal (time)
2.) “go” signal (RT start) {beginning of total response time}
3.) response initiated (RT end & MT start)
4.) response termination (MT end) {total response time end}
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Lecture 8:
What are the 3 types of RT (reaction time) Situations?
- which is fastest & which is slowest?
Simple RT, Choice RT, & Discrimination RT
- simple is fastest as only given one choice
- discrimination is slowest as given 3 choices but only one way to pick
- choice is middle as given 3 choices but 3 ways of picking
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Lecture 8:
What does Hick’s Law explain?
That Reaction Time increases as the number of stimulus-response choices increases
- RT goes up A LOT with increased of choice, meaning in more options = higher RT
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Lecture 8:
What are 2 influencing factors of pre-cue correctness/task preparation?
Pre-cure correctness = “anticipation”
1.) Cost-benefit tradeoff
2.) Stimulus-response compatibility
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Lecture 8:
What is the Cost-Benefit Trade-Off?
Discusses that Cost (slower RT) and Benefit (faster RT) occur as a result of biasing the preparation of an action in favour of several possible actions
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Lecture 8:
What is Stimulus-Response (S-R) Compatibility?
- give an example
Discusses the spatial arrangement of stimuli & the limb movements required to respond to them as well as the physical characteristics/stimulus meaning & type of response it requires
- eg; an S-R comparable stove will have dials arranged Same way as elements but an incomparable one will look like the stove at res
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Lecture 8:
What is the Stroop Effect?
Phenomenon that occurs when a person must verbally respond to the ink colour of a word that names a different colour
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Lecture 8:
What is the Foreperiod & its influence on RT?
The time between set/warning and the “go”/gun
- if the length of the fore-period was constant than anticipation would be used more than RT
- RT decreases when intervals between the warning & go is more regular, due to anticipation
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Lecture 8:
How does Movement Complexity influence RT & preparation?
RT increases as complexity of the action influences the time required to prepare the motor control system
- RT up as complexity up
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Lecture 8:
How does Movement Accuracy influence RT & preparation?
RT increases as movement accuracy demands increase
- demonstrated through comparing Rt’s for manual aiming tasks with different target sizes
- RT up as accuracy up
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Lecture 8:
How does Repetition of a Movement influence RT & preparation?
Repetition of the same response means that the person’s RT for the next trial will be faster than it was on the previous attempt
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Lecture 8:
What is the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)?
The delay in response to the second stimulus when given different signals (time between different responses)
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Lecture 8:
What is the delay in the Psychological Refractory Period related to?
Delay is related to the response selection demands of the 2 S-R tasks that must be performed in rapid succession
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Lecture 8:
What are 2 Performer Characteristics that influence preparation?
1.) Alertness of the Performer
- warning signal indicating a required response will occur in next few seconds
- RT increases the longer alertness is maintained
2.) Attention focussed on signal instead of movement
- RT is faster for sensory-set conditions
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Lecture 8:
What are the 5 events that occur during Action Preparation?
1.) Anticipatory Postural Adjustments
2.) Limb Performance Characteristics
3.) Object Control Characteristics
4.) Sequence of Movements
5.) Rhythmicity Preparation
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Lecture 8:
Of the 5 events that occur during Action Preparation, What is 1: Anticipatory Postural Adjustments?
The organization of movements needed for postural support
- allows additional muscles to be activated prior to an action/movement
- **this is important because postural muscles are always in use, everyone fires these muscles first before any movement then proceeds with their own variations
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Lecture 8:
Of the 5 events that occur during Action Preparation, What is 2: Limb Performance Characteristics?
Movement direction & trajectory reviewed in preparation for ballistic movements and spatial accuracy
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Lecture 8:
Of the 5 events that occur during Action Preparation, What is 3: Object Control Characteristics?
Includes force control & end-state comfort control (eg; grabbing an upside cup how you want so ur hand is ending in the correct position, not starting)
- hands initial spatial position is based on final spatial position
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Lecture 8:
Of the 5 events that occur during Action Preparation, What is 5: Rhythmicity Preparation?
Performance rituals gone through to help prepare approximate timing of upcoming movements
- consistent relative timing of these behaviours are more important for success rather than total time taken
