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kin 280 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

motor development

A

the change in movement behaviour over the lifespan, it is continuous, sequential and age-related

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2
Q

motor learning

A

relatively permanent gains in motor skill capacity associated with practice or experience

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3
Q

motor control

A

the neural, physical, and behavioural aspects of movement

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4
Q

physical growth

A

quantitative increases in size or body mass

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5
Q

physical maturation

A

qualitative advance in biological makeup; cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition

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6
Q

aging

A

process occurring with the passage of time, leading to the loss of adaptability or full function and eventually death

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7
Q

Newell’s model of constraints

A

the interrelation between individual structural and functional constraints with environmental constraints and task constraints
if any of these these factors change, the resultant movement changes

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8
Q

constraints

A
  • limits, contain or help shape the development of movement
  • discourage or limit certain movements
  • encourage or permit other movements
  • “shape” movements, channel away from some movement while toward others
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9
Q

individual constraints

A
  • unique physical, mental characteristics
  • structural: related to the body’s structure (ie. height, muscle mass)
  • functional: related to behavioural function (ie. attention, motivation, fear)
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10
Q

environmental constraints

A
  • a constraint from outside of the body, the world around us
  • external: properties of the environment
  • physical: gravity and surfaces
  • sociocultural: gender roles, cultural norms
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11
Q

task constraints

A
  • specific task requirements or goals, external to the body and not related to the individual
  • related specifically to tasks or skills: goal of task, rule guiding task performance, and equipment
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12
Q

examples of individual structural constraints

A
  • height: not being tall enough to reach top of volleyball net
  • weight: above average body weight and trying to be physical active
  • muscle mass: not enough strength to shoot basketball with proper form
  • disease presence: arthritis impacting shoulder ROM
  • locomotor ability: hand-eye coordination, a child who is crawling hasn’t yet learned to walk
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13
Q

examples of individual behavioural constraints

A
  • attention: unable to focus on the task at hand, attention to detail, ADHD
  • motivation: no desire so decreased performance
  • fear or anxiety: fear of failure in a clutch performance
  • previous experience: had a skiing injury and scared to repeat injury, or hated a previous exercises class
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14
Q

examples of environmental constraints

A
  • gravity: require gravity to play badminton, determines how high we can jump
  • surfaces: smooth vs rough ice, wet vs dry field
  • weather: wind reduces golf performance
  • gender roles: 2024 will be the first year with men’s synchronized swimming
  • cultural norms: women less likely to play sports in certain parts of the world
  • crowd at a sports event: intimidating, could decrease focus/ability to perform
  • pressure from family or parents: discuss with parents in the care after enhances pressure
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15
Q

examples of task constraints

A
  • goal of a task: when learning to run we modify the task and don’t focus on arm swing until other aspects of running are proficient
  • rules about performance: you must dribble basketball to move down the court, could get there much easier and more efficiently by just running with it
  • equipment: a large basketball is a constraint that negatively effects learning to dribble in small children, but a scaled down ball is a constraint that positively impacts dribbling for small children
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16
Q

Child kicking a ball contraints

A
  • individual structural: height, weight
  • individual functional: short attention span, off task easily, motivation/enjoyment
  • environmental: experience, clothes their parents put them in, outside can be distracting, surface (grass will provide a barrier)
  • task: unsure of rules/goal, size of the ball
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17
Q

constraints on atypical development

A
  • disabilities: differences in structural or functional individual constraints
  • must consider all interacting constraints
  • may result in delayed/different motor development
  • in the extreme may arrest development and no further change is observed (ie cerebral palsy)
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18
Q

changing developmental trajectories

effects of early constraints on development

A
  • an early constraint or influence can change the developmental trajectory for the remainder of development
  • Seefeldt proposed a proficiency barrier
  • if the barrier isn’t crossed by a certain age, subsequent development would be difficult, this impacts the developmental trajectory
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19
Q

arrested development

A

a failure to develop beyond a specific point

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20
Q

longitudinal research

A

a individual or group is observed over time, study can require lengthy observation

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21
Q

cross-sectional research

A

individuals or groups of different ages are observed, change is inferred not actually observed

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22
Q

sequential or mixed longitudinal

A

mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages

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23
Q

meta-analysis

A

statistical technique integrates the effects observed in many studies into one more generalizable estimate of an effect

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24
Q

systematic review

A

many studies on a topic are compared and contrasted

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25
Q

universality

A

individuals in a species show great similarity in development

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26
Q

variability

A

individual difference exist

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27
Q

motor skill

A
  • a function which involves the precise movement of muscle with the intent to perform a specific act
  • has four common characteristics
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28
Q

4 common characteristics of a motor skill

A
  1. there is a goal to achieve, the action has a purpose
  2. performed voluntarily, reflexes are not motor skills but trained reactions are
  3. body and/or limb movement
  4. need to be learned
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29
Q

motor skill classification systems

A
  1. gross vs fine motor skills
  2. discrete, serial and continuous
  3. open vs closed
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30
Q

gross motor skills

A
  • involve large muscles and precision of movement is not that important
  • smooth coordination of muscles is essential
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31
Q

fine motor skills

A
  • require control of small muscles to achieve a goal
  • usually involve a high degree of precision of movement and hand-eye coordination
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32
Q

discrete motor skills

A

clearly defined beginning and end point, ie track running

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33
Q

serial motor skills

A

a series of discrete motor skills performed in a specific order, ie gymnastics routine

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34
Q

continuous motor skills

A
  • no obvious beginning and end point, ie walking, running, biking
  • performer or external forces determine the beginning and endpoints of the skill, rather than the skill itself
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35
Q

closed motor skills

A
  • performed in a stable and predictable environment
  • a self-paced task, the object waits to be acted on by the performer
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36
Q

open motor skills

A
  • performed in an ever-changing, unpredictable environment
  • an externally-paced task, performer needs to react to the environment to be successful
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37
Q

ways to measure motor performance

two main ways to measure performance: outcome vs process

A
  1. performance outcome measures: measures the outcome or result of performing a motor skill, doesn’t tell you how the outcome was achieved
  2. performance process measures: measures how aspects of the motor control system are functioning during the performance of an action, eg. muscles used, joint angles, nervous system activity
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38
Q

outcome measures

A
  • reaction time (RT)
  • movement time (MT)
  • performance errors
39
Q

process measures

A
  • kinematics
  • kinetics
  • electromyography
  • coordination
40
Q

reaction time measures

A
  1. simple RT: one signal, one response, eg. 1 means touch your nose
  2. choice RT: more than one signal, each with its own response, eg 1 means touch your nose, 2 means touch your ears, etc.
  3. discrimination RT: more than one signal, one response, eg only touch your nose when I say 1, 2 and 3 have no response
41
Q

reaction time

A

the time interval between the presentation of a signal and the initiation of a movement

42
Q

pre-motor time (PRMOT)

A

time between the signal and the first change in EMG (electromyography) activity in the muscle
receive and interpret signal -> develop an action plan -> convey information to muscles

43
Q

motor time (MOT)

A
  • time between first EMG activity and observable movement
  • not directly observable (MOT=RT-PRMOT)
44
Q

movement time (MT)

A

the time interval between the start of a movement and its completion

45
Q

performance error measures

A

used to determine whether or not the goal of the movement was achieved
1. absolute error: estimate overall size of the error
2. constant error: provides information on overall direction of error
3. variable error: the standard deviation of performance

46
Q

performance process measures

A
  1. kinematics: motion qualities without regard to force
    a. displacement: how far we’ve moved
    b. velocity: how fast were moving
    c. acceleration: the rate at which we are increasing how fast we are moving
  2. kinetics: various internal and external forces acting on the body, eg. joint muscles (internal) and/or gravity and friction forces (external)
  3. electromyography: electrical activity in the muscle
  4. coordination: spatial and temporal relationships of limb segments
47
Q

detailed information processing model

6 steps

A
  1. input: external info, which enters the CNS
  2. sensory system: detects environmental information (by using senses)
  3. perceptual system: organizes and classifies environmental information (into meaningful units or identifying what the information is)
  4. memory: encodes and stores information for later retrieval, allows us to make informed decisions based on what we know
  5. processor: integrates perceptual and memory information and makes a decision, limited system
  6. response organization and effector mechanism: organizes the appropriate motor commands and sends them to the muscles
48
Q

performance

A
  • observable behaviour
  • difficult to identify cause of observable behaviour
49
Q

how is learning determined?

A
  • must be inferred from behaviour
  • the challenge is the we cannot observe it directly: therefore we need a lot of evidence to know its occurring
50
Q

what might affect performance of an athletic task/motor skill other than learning?

A
  • reflexes
  • maturation (body)
  • luck
  • strong teammates
  • motivation/incentives
51
Q

How can we tell if learning has occurred?

A
  • change over time > need to observe people over time
  • more consistent performance > same movement patterns are performed consistently
  • change is relatively permanent
52
Q

stages of learning

A
  1. cognitive stage
  2. associative stage
  3. autonomous stage
53
Q

cognitive stage

A
  • a large number of errors
  • gross errors > large, catastrophic
  • highly variable performance> often a lot of new strategies attempted
  • high cognitive involvement > information processing demands are high
54
Q

associative stage

A
  • fewer errors
  • ability to detect own errors > can detect reason for the error
  • basic fundamentals have been learned
  • decreased variability
  • even types of errors made are more consistent
  • cognitive shift to higher order components
55
Q

autonomous stage

A
  • skill become automatic > little to no cognition involvement needed to produce the skill
  • little error > errors made are decisional rather than technical
  • there is also a well-established internal standards of performance that allows for the detection and correction of errors
56
Q

learning through practice

A

can be:
- real > practicing yourself
- imagery/mental practice > practicing in “mind’s eye”
- observational/vicarious learning > seeing others perform the skill

57
Q

what makes a natural athlete?

A
  • initial hand-eye coordination
  • ability to self-correct
  • learn new skill quickly
  • reaction time
  • can transfer skills to various sports easily
58
Q

transfer of learning

A

the influence of having previously practiced a skill on the learning of a new skill
generally increases as the similarity between the two tasks increases

59
Q

positive transfer of learning

A
  • when the experience with a previous skill facilitates the learning of a new skill
  • most likely when:
    i. the components of the skill are similar, the similar environment explanation
    ii. there are similarities between the learning processes required, the individual explanation
60
Q

negative transfer of learning

A
  • when the experience with a previous skill interferes with the learning of a new skill
  • most likely when:
    i. there are changes in spatial location required
    ii. there are changes in timing required
61
Q

zero transfer of learning

A

when the experience with a previous skill has no effect on the learning of a new skill

62
Q

instructional methods for promoting transfer

A
  1. provide contextual interference, ie practice different skills during a practice session
  2. vary the type of practice
  3. reduce the frequency of feedback
63
Q

provide contextual interference

A

-promotes the development of cognitive strategies that are less dependent on skill or context
- a different plan of action is needed each time

64
Q

vary the type of practice

A
  • practice many variations of one skill in a variety of contexts
65
Q

reduce the frequency of feedback

A
  • forces the learner to engage in active problem-solving and rely more on his/her own internal feedback
  • sometime in competition certain types of external feedback won’t be there
66
Q

whole practice

A
  • practicing a skill in a cohesive manner
  • helps learner get a feel for flow and timing of the skill
  • if parts of a skill are highly dependent on each other, should be practiced as a whole
67
Q

part practice

A
  • practicing a skill by breaking it down into individual units and attempting to ‘perfect” each one, before eventually combining them into the whole skill
  • helps learner master each component of a whole skill before worrying about it as a cohesive task
  • should not be done if parts of a skill become a safety concern
68
Q

what should we consider before deciding which method of practice is best?

A
  • task complexity: number of parts in the task and the information processing demands of it
  • task organization: how the components of the task are interrelated
69
Q

if a skill is high in complexity, but low in organization

A

emphasize practice of parts

70
Q

if a skill is low in complexity but high is organization

A

emphasize the practice of whole

71
Q

blocked practice

A
  • task is practiced on many consecutive trials before the next task
  • enables learners to correct specific problems and refine skills one at a time
  • especially important for beginners, when correct habits need to be learned and established
  • associated with more short-term benefits in performance
72
Q

random practice

A
  • the ordering of tasks is randomized during practice
  • very effective once a skill has become more developed
  • can overload a beginner because of the high task demands
  • associated with greater learning of the task
73
Q

what is practice variability?

A
  • refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill
  • can lead to an increase in errors, but usually enhances learning
  • its effectiveness varies based on the type of skill
74
Q

how to practice variability for closed skills

A
  • practice conditions should be similar to those that will prevail under competition conditions
  • hold the regulatory conditions relatively constant (eg. size of basket, height of beam)
  • vary the non-regulatory conditions (eg. crowd noise, fatigue, wait time)
75
Q

practice variability with open skills

A
  • each response is somewhat novel and requires movement patterns that can be used in a variety of situations
  • vary the regulatory conditions (eg. pattern/routes or receivers)
  • vary the non-regulatory conditions (eg. crowd noise, fatigue, wait time)
  • will likely inhibit short-term performance but will enhance learning
76
Q

augmented feedback

two types

A
  • information about performance that comes from an outside source
  • knowledge of results (KR): information about outcome
  • knowledge of performance (KP): information about the production of the movement pattern
77
Q

benefits of augmented feedback

A
  1. provides information for error identification and correction > directs attention to most important information
  2. acts as a form of reinforcement > strengthens correct responses
  3. serves to motivate the learner > provides information about progress
78
Q

things to keep in mind with augmented feedback

A
  1. precision of feedback
    - feedback can either be too precise or too general
    - when might feedback be either too precise or too general? depends on stage of learning
  2. content of feedback
    - feedback can contain information about error and/or correct performance
    - feedback can be qualitative or quantitative
  3. forms of feedback
    - verbal: prescriptive or descriptive
    - kinematic and kinetic visual displays (eg. charts and graphs)
    - video (watching back form)
    - biofeedback (information about physiological functions)
79
Q

verbal prescriptive feedback

A

identifies the error and tells the learner what to do to correct it

80
Q

verbal descriptive feedback

A

describes the error made

81
Q

minimizing feedback dependency

A
  1. faded feedback
  2. bandwidth feedback
  3. summary feedback
82
Q

faded feedback

A
  • as learner improves, slowly reduce amount of feedback
  • the coach can tailor feedback to respect individual differences
83
Q

bandwidth feedback

A
  • only give feedback when outside range of correctness
  • eventually, faded feedback occurs
  • lack of feedback = positive reinforcement
  • movement consistency develops because learner is not encouraged to change movement on each trial
84
Q

summary feedback

A
  • only give feedback after a set number of trials
  • generates movement consistency
  • avoids overloading the learner
  • can eventually allow athlete to perform more and more trials before feedback
85
Q

when is feedback needed the most in learning process?

A
  1. feedback is vital as learner transitions into associative stage
  2. in associative stage use faded, bandwidth or summary feedback
  3. once learner reaches autonomous stage feedback can be withdrawn
86
Q

physical literacy

A

the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life
- when children are taught basic movement patterns at a young age, their athletic competence is enhances, which leads to greater confidence and motivation to participate in physical activity and athletic tasks

87
Q

basic movement patterns

A
  • running (3 tasks)
  • locomotor (5 tasks)
  • object control - upper body (4 tasks)
    object contol - lower body (3 tasks)
  • balance, stability and body control (4 tasks)
88
Q

assessing physical literacy development scale

A

developing:
- initial: presence of numerous gaps during execution
- emerging: limited number of major gaps, but able to execute basic sequencing of the task
acquired:
- competent: basic level of execution with minor sequencing errors
- proficient: overall proficiency is depicted by the quality of the movement

89
Q

ways to test running physical literacy

A
  1. running in a square: child runs around 4 pylons, 3m apart in a square
  2. run there and back: child runs a straight line between 2 pylons, 5m apart
  3. run, jump, then land on two feet: the child runs a straight line from one pylon to another, 5m apart, performs a long jump at the pylon and lands on two feet
90
Q

ways to test locomotor physical literacy

A
  1. crossovers: child is asked to perform crossover steps or grapevine from one pylon to next, 5m apart
  2. skip: child is asked to skip from one pylon to next
  3. gallop: child is asked to gallop from one pylon to the next
  4. hop: child is asked to hop from one pylon to the next
  5. jump: child is asked to jump from one pylon to the next
91
Q

ways to assess object control, upper body physical literacy

A
  1. overhand throw: asked to throw a tennis ball overhand at the wall from 2m away and make it bounce back over thee top of their head
  2. strike with stick: asked to strike a tennis ball off a baseball tee, using baseball bat
  3. one-hand catch: the child is asked to catch a tennis ball thrown by an assessor, using only one hand from 3m away
  4. hand dribbles stationary and moving forward: asked to dribble a basketball three time at one pylon and then dribble forward 4m to the next pylon
92
Q

ways to assess object control, lower body physical literacy

A
  1. kick ball: asked to kick a soccer ball at a marker on the wall, placed 1m above the ground from 4m away
  2. foot dribble moving forward: asked to dribble soccer from one pylon to the next, placed 5m apart
93
Q

ways to test balance, stability and body control physical literacy

A
  1. balance walk (heel-to-toe) forward: asked to walk “heel-to-toe” from one pylon to next placed 2m apart while keeping their balance
  2. balance walk (heel-to-toe) backward
  3. drop to the ground and get back up
  4. lift and lower: asked to lift a ball above their head and then lower it back down to the ground

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