Midterm 1 Flashcards
(251 cards)
1
Q
What is Dementia?
A
A group of disorders that affects memory, thinking, and interferes with daily life.
2
Q
What are the two types of dementia?
A
Irreversible and Reversible
3
Q
Dementia is more likely to be:
A
Irreversible
4
Q
What are the types of irreversible dementia?
A
Alzheimer’s, dementia with Lewy bodies, fronto-temporal dementia, vascular dementia, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury
5
Q
What are the types of reversible dementia?
A
Depressive pseudodementia, metabolic problems, medication side effects, infections, dementia due to structural lesions
6
Q
Since the elderly population is growing:
A
it increases the number of people who will develop dementia
7
Q
Hydrocephalus
A
Water on the brain, enlargement of ventricles with cerebrospinal fluid. This crushes brain tissue causing a variety of symptoms.
8
Q
Microcephaly
A
Heads are much smaller
9
Q
What are the problems linked with microcephaly?
A
Seizures, developmental delay, intellectual disability, problems with movement and balance, feeding problems(swallowing), hearing loss and vision problems.
10
Q
Anencephaly
A
Severe case of microcephaly where baby is born without a brain.
11
Q
Major subdivisions of the brain
A
Cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla, cerebellum and spinal cord
12
Q
Sensory neurons
A
Bring information to the central nervous system
13
Q
Interneurons
A
Associate sensory and motor activity in the central nervous system (process information and decides what to do)
14
Q
Motor neurons
A
Sends signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles or glands
15
Q
Sagittal plane
A
Goes right in-between eyes, splits hemispheres
16
Q
Coronal plane
A
From ear to ear, shows both hemispheres
17
Q
Horizontal plane
A
Horizontal slices
18
Q
Central nervous system (CNS)
A
Composed of the brain and spinal cord
19
Q
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
A
Composed of nerves and ganglia(conveys information to and from the spinal cord)
20
Q
What does the nervous system do?
A
Coordinates movement, touch, pain and our senses. Also forms our emotions, thoughts and consciousness.
21
Q
What does the spinal cord do?
A
Conveys information from the brain to the PNS via spinal nerves.
22
Q
What are peripheral nerves?
A
Receives and sends information from the brain to the PNS via spinal nerves
23
Q
What are the two clumps of nerves that each vertebrate contains and what do they each do?
A
Dorsal clump which receives sensory information and the ventral clump that sends signals to muscles
24
Q
Cervical segment in the spinal cord:
A
8 segments that innervate the back oof head, neck, shoulders and arms
25
Thoracic segment of the spinal cord:
12 segments that innervate thorax, upper abdomen
26
Lumbar segment of the spinal cord:
5 segments that innervate the pelvic girdle and the legs
27
Sacral regions segment of the spinal cord:
5 segments innervating urogenital and perianal structures and back of legs
28
Dermatomes
Region of skin that a spinal nerve innervates. Appear as horizontal slices across the body
29
What do spinal nerves do?
Spinal nerves innovate the body. Carry information to specific areas of the body ( such as movement orders) and receive information (such as touch, pain, etc.)
30
Cranial nerves
Innovate the face and mainly originate in the medulla
31
Where does the brain and brain stem connect?
At the medulla which is part of the brain stem
32
What is locked in syndrome?
Rare neurological disorder characterized by the complete paralysis of voluntary muscles in all parts of the body except for those that control eye movement.
33
How does locked in syndrome occur?
Traumatic brain injury, stroke, disease that destroys the myelin sheath surrounding nerve cells or medication overdose
34
What happens to individuals with locked in syndrome?
Conscious and can think and reason, but are unable to speak or move. Leaves them mute and paralyzed
35
What does the blood brain barrier do?
Separates the blood from the brains own fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
36
Why is the BBB important?
Stops infections and toxins from reaching the brain
37
What kinds of molecules can and cannot cross the BBB?
Large molecules cannot cross the BBB easily (major hurdle for developing drugs for brain disorders). Small molecules and lipid soluble molecules can cross
38
What is cerebrospinal fluid(CSF)?
It is filtered from blood. Central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain are hollow and filled with cerebrospinal fluid
39
What does CSF do?
Functions to cushion the brain and spinal cord. Protects neurons. Brain is buoyant in fluid since it is dense
40
Lumbar punctures
CSF can be drawn from the spinal column for diagnostic purposes or for the delivery of drugs to reach the CNS.
41
What is a cell?
simplest collection of matter that can live
42
Eukaryotic cells
Has a large size which makes it difficult for molecules to diffuse across the entire cell. Solved by breaking the volume into several smaller membrane bound organelles
43
What are the two advantages that the compartmentalization of eukaryotic cells offer?
1. separation of incompatible chemical reactions
2. Increase the efficiency of chemical reactions
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Nucleus function:
Information storage and processing (contains the cells chromosomes)
Ribosomal RNA synthesis (in the nucleolus)
45
Rough endoplasmic reticulum function:
Ribosomes associated with the rough ER synthesize proteins. New proteins are folded and processed in the rough ER lumen
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum function:
Enzymes within the smooth ER may synthesize fatty acids and phospholipids or break down poisonous lipids. Reservoir for Ca2+ ions
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Golgi apparatus function:
Processes, sorts and ships proteins synthesized in the rough ER. Membranous vesicles carry materials to and from the organelle
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Ribosomes function:
Protein synthesis
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Lysosome function:
Used for digestion and waste processing
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Mitochondrion function:
ATP production
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Cytoskeleton function:
Composed of protein fibers which gives the cell shape and structural stability and aids cell movement and transport of materials within the cell. (Organizes all of the organelles and other cell structures into a cohesive whole)
52
Plasma membrane function:
Selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients and waste to service the volume of every cell
53
What are neurons?
Cells that transmit electrical signals used in communication. Muscles can respond to electrical signals by contracting.
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Where are most of a neurons organelles located?
The cell body
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What are dendrites?
Highly branched extensions that receive electrical signals from other neurons
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What are axons?
Longer extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses
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What is the axon hillock?
Where an axon joins the cell body
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What is the flow of signal in a neuron?
Dendrites-->Cell body-->Axon
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Where do neurons form networks for information flow?
Synapses
60
What is a synapse?
Junction between an axon and another cell (gap)
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What is a synaptic terminal?
Where an axon passes information across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters
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The plasma membrane is impermeable to:
Charged ions, such as Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+
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Plasma membranes contain protein channels and receptors that:
Let specific charged ions across the plasma membrane which gives neurons electrical energy
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What causes a neuron to rapidly signal?
The flow of charged ions going across the plasma membrane which gives neurons electrical energy
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What causes a difference in electrical potential or voltage?
A difference in electrical charge between any two points
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What happens when the positive and negative charges on ions that exist on the two sides of a plasma membrane don't balance each other?
The membrane will have an electrical potential
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What is a membrane potential?
When an electrical potential exists on either side of a plasma membrane, the separation of charges is called a membrane potential
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What does Na+/K+-ATPase import and export?
Imports K+ and exports Na+
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Where is the concentration of K+ and Na+ ions higher?
K+ ions are higher inside of the cell and Na+ ions are higher outside of the cell
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What how is information transmitted between cells?
Transmitted from a presynaptic cell(a neuron) to a postsynaptic cell(a neuron, muscles or gland cell)
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What are most neurons nourished or insulated by?
Glia cells
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What are astrocytes glia?
Restricted to the CNS
Maintain appropriate chemical environment for neuronal signaling
Part of the BBB to restrict what can gain access to the brain
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What are oligodendrocytes glia?
Found in the CNS and are glia that form the myelin sheaths around the axons of many vertebrate neurons
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What are Schwan cell glia?
Found in the PNS and form the myelin sheaths around the axons of many vertebrate neurons
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What are most brain tumors caused by?
Gliomas or Meningiomas (glia cell types)
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What are action potentials?
All or none changes in membrane potential that serve as electrical signals.
During an action potential, an inflow of sodium ions is followed by an outflow of potassium ions
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What is the resting potential?
The membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals
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How does the sodium-potassium pump maintain K+ concentration higher inside the cell and Na+ concentration higher outside of the cell gradient across the plasma membrane?
With the use of ATP
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What do concentration gradients represent?
Chemical potential energy
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What do resting membrane potentials do?
Sets up concentration gradients for Na+ and K+
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What is the voltage difference across the plasma membrane?
-70mv
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When do voltage gated ion channels open and close?
In response to stimuli
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What happens at the resting potential at voltage gated Na+ channels?
The channels are closed (pos charged outside and neg charged inside)
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When do voltage-gated channels open?
Conformational changes open channels when the membrane is depolarized(loss of difference in charge inside and outside of the cell) (pos & neg inside and outside cell)
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Why are voltage gated potassium channels important?
Important for restoring membrane potential following depolarization
Opens slowly causing delayed efflux of potassium
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Why are voltage gated sodium channels important?
Important for depolarizing membrane (making inside more positive) during action potentials
Opens rapidly allowing influx of sodium
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Why are voltage gated calcium channels important?
Opens when membrane depolarizes and lets calcium flow into cell
Important for synaptic release
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What happens during an action potential?
Depolarization reaches threshold (-55mv)
All or non response
Action potential is nerve impulse or signal that carries info along axon
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Why can't a second action potential be initiated during the refractory period?
Because of the temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels?
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How do action potentials travel long distances?
By regenerating itself along the axon
At the site where the action potential is generated (at the axon hillock), an electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane
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What prevents the action potential from travelling backwards?
Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of depolarization (refractory period)
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Which way do action potentials travel?
In one directions, towards the synaptic terminals
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What causes the speed of an action potential to increase?
The axons diameter
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What is the myelin sheath?
Stuff that axons are insulated with which causes an action potentials speed to increase
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Where are action potentials formed?
Nodes of Ranvier
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What are nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in the myelin sheath where voltage-gated Na+ channels are found
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What is saltatory conduction?
When action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier
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What happens at electrical synapses?
Electrical current flows from one neuron to another
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What happens at chemical synapses?
A chemical neurotransmitter carries information across synaptic cleft(gap btw 2 cells)
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What kind of synapses are most synapses?
Chemical synapses
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What causes the opening of voltage-gated channels that allow Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminal?
The arrival of an action potential at a synaptic terminal that depolarizes the membrane
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What happens after Ca2+ diffuses into the terminal?
It triggers vesicles to fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitters
103
What happens after the release of a neurotransmitter in a synaptic terminal?
The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft, binds to ligand-gated ion channels in the post synaptic membrane, opening the channels
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Why do postsynaptic potentials happen?
Neurotransmitter binding causes ion channels to open
This means that a change in the membrane potential of the post synaptic cell
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Neurotransmitters can be:
excitatory or inhibitory
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A single excitatory post synaptic potential is:
NOT sufficient to trigger an action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
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A single excitatory postsynaptic potential:
is usually too small to trigger an action potential in a post synaptic neuron
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What is temporal summation?
When two excitatory postsynaptic potentials are produced in rapid succession(one after the other)
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What is spatial summation?
When excitatory postsynaptic potentials are produces nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron add together
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The combination of excitatory postsynaptic potentials through spatial and temporal summation can:
trigger an action potential
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Main point of spatial and temporal summation:
Spatial and temporal summation can result in depolarization of the membrane such that the threshold potential is reached and an action potential is fired
112
What could happen to the neurotransmitter after it is released in the synaptic terminal?
May diffuse out of the synaptic cleft
May be taken up by surrounding cells
May be degraded by enzymes
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What are the 5 major classes of neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, biogenic amines, amino acids, neuropeptides and gases
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What does acetycholine do?
Involved in muscle stimulation, memory formation and learning
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What neurotransmitters does amino acids include?
Glutamate(excitatory), GABA & glycine (both inhibitory)
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What neurotransmitters does biogenic amines include?
Norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin
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What are noradrenergic pathways in the brain do?
One neuron produces the same neurotransmitter forever
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What are the 2 major classes of acetylcholine receptor?
Ligand gated and metabotropic
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What disrupts acetylcholine neurotransmission?
Toxins such as the nerve gas sarin, the botulism toxin(severe form of food poisoning) and Botox
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What do cholinergic neurons in the brain use?
Acetylcholine
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What do biogenic amines (serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine) affect?
Sleep, mood, attention, learning and memory
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What disease is associated with lack of dopamine in the brain?
Parkinson's disease
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Depression is treated with drugs that block the reuptake of what?
Serotonin, increases amount of serotonin
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What neurotransmitters does dopaminergic neurons in the brain use?
Dopamine
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What neurotransmitters does serotonergic neurons in the brain use?
Serotonin
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What disorders is serotonin involved with?
Depression, anxiety, obesity, aggression, violence, drug addiction
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What is glutamate?
Most excitatory pathways in the brain use it
Critical for learning and memory
Overactivation leads to epilepsy (too much of it)
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What is GABA?
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
Without inhibition the brain would go out of control leading to all neurons firing uncontrollably
With inhibition the brain can fine tune its responses and control activation
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Gray and white matter is found in the:
Brain and spinal cord
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Gray matter consists of what?
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated axons
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White matter consists of what?
Bundles of myelinated axons
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What are the 5 brain regions in adults?
Cerebrum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, cerebellum and medulla
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What does the brainstem do?
Coordinates and conducts information between brain centers
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What are the 3 parts of the brainstem?
Midbrain, pons and medulla
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What does the midbrain do?
Contains centers for receipt and integration of sensory information
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What does the pons do?
Regulates breathing centers in the medulla
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What does the medulla do?
Contains centers that control functions like breathing, cardiovascular activity, swallowing, vomiting and digestion
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What does the cerebellum do?
Important for coordination and error checking during motor, perceptual and cognitive function
Involved in learning and remembering motor skills
Crucial for fine motor control (refines & directs motor function)
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What does the diencephalon develop into?
Epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus
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What does epithalamus include?
The pineal gland and generates cerebrospinal fluid from blood
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What does the thalamus do?
Main input center for sensory information to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum
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What does the hypothalamus do?
Regulates homeostasis and basic survival behaviors such as feeding, fighting, fleeing and reproducing
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What is the cerebrum?
Has right & left cerebral hemispheres
Each hemisphere consists of a cerebral cortex (gray matter) overlying white matter
Is the largest and most complex part of the brain
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What is the corpus callosum?
A thick band of axons that provides communication between the right and left cerebral cortices
Right hem controls left side and left hem controls right side
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What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal, temporal, occipital and parietal
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Where does the cerebral cortex receive input from?
Sensory organs and somatosensory receptors
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In the somatosensory and motor cortices, how are neurons distributed?
According to the body part that generates sensory input or receives motor input
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Where is the motor cortex located?
In the frontal lobe
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Where is the somatosensory cortex located?
In the parietal lobe
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What brain region lights up when hearing words?
Temporal lobe
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What brain region lights up when seeing words?
Occipital lobe
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What brain region lights up when speaking words?
Frontal/ parietal lobe
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What brain region lights up when generating words?
Frontal lobe
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What area is responsible for speech production?
Broca's area (knows what they want to say but can't produce the words)
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What area is responsible for the understanding of written and spoken language?
Wernicke's area
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What is the Broca's area involved with?
Expressive aphasia (unable to speak)
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What is Wernicke's area involved with?
Receptive aphasia (can speak fluently but use the wrong words or make up words, have difficulty understanding the language of others)
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What is the left hemisphere good at?
Language, math, logic and processing serial sequences
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What is the right hemisphere good at?
Pattern recognition, nonverbal thinking and emotional processing
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What are the differences in hemisphere function called?
Lateralization (linked to handedness)
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Where are emotions generated and experienced?
Limbic system and other parts of the brain including the sensory areas
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What is the limbic system?
A ring of structures around the brainstem that includes the amygdala, hippocampus and parts of the thalamus
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What is the amygdala and where is it located?
In the temporal lobe and helps store an emotional experience as an emotional memory
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What does modern brain imaging techniques suggest?
That consciousness is an emergent property of the brain based on activity in many areas of the cortex
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When does learning happen in the brain?
When neurons make new connections or the strength of existing neural connections changes
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Where is short term memory accessed?
Via the hippocampus
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Where is long term memory stored?
In the cerebral cortex
The hippocampus also plays a role in forming it
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What is memory?
The group of mechanisms or processes by which experience shapes us, changing our brains and our behavior
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How are memories encoded?
Encoded by our neurons in our brains which selectively store events for us to recollect
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What type of memory is amnesia associated with?
Long-term memory
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What is short term memory?
Allows recall for a few seconds to a minute without rehearsal
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What is the capacity for short term memory?
7+/-2 items
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What type of memory is working memory?
Short term memory
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What is long term memory?
Very large capacity, can store information indefinitely
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What can long term memory be divided into?
Explicit(declarative) and implicit (procedural) memories
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What is explicit memory?
The conscious recollection of known experiences and facts
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What can explicit memory be divided into?
Semantic memory(facts) and episodic memory(info specific to a particular context, such as a time and place)
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Semantic memory is:
the encoding of abstract knowledge of the world like "Paris is the capital of France"
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Episodic memory is:
used for more personal memories such as the sensations, emotions and personal associates of a particular place or time
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What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for particular events within ones life (equivalent to or subset of episodic memory)
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What is implicit memory?
Changes in performance or behavior produced by prior experiences
Do not require any intentional or conscious recollection of those experiences
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What is encoding of working memory?
Involves the spiking of individual neurons induced by sensory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears
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What is encoding of episodic memory?
Persistent changes in molecular structures that alter synaptic transmission between neurons
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Which type of memory is temporary and subject to disruption?
Short term memory
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Which type of memory is persistent and stable?
Long term memory
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How are short term memories converted into long term?
Once encoded, must be stored or maintained over time
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What is consolidation?
The act of strengthening memories that allows them to become long term memories
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What helps store memories?
Sleep and emotion
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What is the process of memories?
Encoded, consolidated and stored, then retrieved
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What happened to H.M?
His medial temporal lobes were removed so he never had the ability to acquire new information, remember facts about his or other peoples lives
Could not tell his age, date or recent history
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H.M could still:
Reason and solve problems, full motor control, act appropriately in situations
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H.M still had:
Implicit learning (subconsciously learning via repetition)
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What is the medial temporal lobe crucial for?
Forming new memories
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What does the medial temporal lobe contain?
Hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum and amygdala
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What is the hippocampus vital for?
Forming new memories (not where memories are stored)
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What did we learn about the medial temporal lobe from H.M.?
The ability to acquire new memories is a distinct cerebral function, cognition and memory are separate since he was still able to use retrieval and working memory)
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What aren't the medial temporal lobe used for?
Not required for immediate (working) memory
Cannot be the ultimate storage site for long term memory
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What does it mean when damage to medial temporal lobes cause global impairments in memory?
Any memories from any sense are impaired (audio, visual, somesthetic and olfactory)
Applies to verbal and non-verbal material
Also spatial and non spatial information
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What does damage to the left hemisphere hippocampus do?
Impairs memory for verbal material
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What does damage to the right hemisphere hippocampus do?
Impairs memory for non-verbal material
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What does bilateral damage do the hippocampus do?
Causes general impairment
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What is anterograde amnesia?
Inability to learn new material after the occurrence of amnesia (can't learn new material after accident)
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What is retrograde amnesia?
Impairment of memory before the amnestic event (can't recall memory is past before accident)
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What can anterograde amnesia be caused by?
Drugs, alcohol, damage to the hippocampus and related structures
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What kind of memory do patients lose with anterograde amnesia?
Declarative(explicit memory), but retain non-declarative memory (implicit memory)
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What is retrograde amnesia caused by?
Closed head injury (car accident, falls)
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How long does retrograde amnesia last?
Usually only extends back less than 60 minutes before the event in 95% of patients
Sometimes extend back much longer, even years
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What diseases can temporally extensive retrograde amnesia that can span decades be seen in?
Alzheimer, Korsakoff, Huntington and Parkinson's disease
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As long as damage is restricted to the hippocampus, individuals have intact memory for:
Basic perception, motor skills, linguistics and intellect
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What type of memory is spared in amnestic patients?
Working memory
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What is working memory?
The ability to hold a limited amount of information online over the short term while it's being actively processed
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What type of memory does medial temporal lobes not play a crucial role in?
Working memory
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What is the hippocampus not vital for?
Working memory or long term storage of memories
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A nerve is:
A long strand made up of thousands of neurons
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Due to their structure and function_________ are not able to divide
Neurons
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The primary immune response in the CNS comes from the action of
Microglia
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The Na+/K+ pump helps maintain the ___________ by moving three Na+ ions of and two K+ into the cell
Resting membrane potential
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Neural transmission is generally _______ within a single neuron and ________ between neurons
Electrical(slower); chemical(neurotransmitters, faster)
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Which channels set the resting membrane potential in neurons?
The sodium/potassium ATPase
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Which channels are involved in generating an action potential?
Voltage gated sodium channels and voltage gated potassium channels
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What happens when a neurons membrane depolarizes?
The neurons membrane voltage becomes more positive
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Where are neurotransmitter receptors located?
On the postsynaptic membrane
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Neurons rely on glial cells for
Protection, metabolic support and insulation
224
In a myelinated axon, action potentials are regenerated
At gaps in the myelin known as nodes of Ranvier
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The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of _____ and _____, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of _____ and ______
Spinal cord and brain; nerves and ganglia
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What type of glia make up the BBB?
Astrocyte
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What passes easily through the BBB?
Lipid soluble and small molecules
228
What structure contains centers involved in regulating cardiovascular activity, swallowing and vomitting
Medulla
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Tay-Sachs disease leads to the death of neurons and is caused by malfunctioning lysosomes. What is the most likely result of this malfunctioning?
Waste building up in brain cells
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The spinal cord directly connects with the brain. This occurs at a structure called the ________
Medulla
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The function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is to ________
synthesize protiens
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The axon joins the cell body at the ________
Axon hillock
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How much does the average human brain weigh?
2.5 lbs.
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Why is the BBB a huge hurdle to drug development?
Many molecules cannot cross the BBB
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What is the correct flow of information in a neuron?
Dendrites ----> cell body---> axon
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Myelin in the brain is produced by
Oligodendrocytes
237
A rational approach to treating epilepsy is:
Increase GABA activity
238
The sodium potassium pump:
Requires ATP to function
239
The most common site of origination of a neuronal action potential:
Axon hillock
240
Temporal summation always involves
Multiple inputs at a single synapse
241
A lack of dopamine is associated with what disease?
Parkinson's disease
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The brainstem consists of the midbrain, ______, and ________
Pons, medulla
243
Which structure regulates homeostasis, fighting and reproducing?
Hypothalamus
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If you are reading words, what region is mostly likely to light up using brain-imaging technology?
Parietal lobe
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The motor cortex is part of the _____lobe and the somatosensory cortex is part of the ______ lobe
Frontal; parietal
246
What structure is responsible for transmitting information between the two cerebral hemispheres?
Corpus callosum
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True or false: Anterograde amnesia involves an impairment in recalling previous events, while retrograde amnesia involves a deficit in forming new memories
False
248
The medial temporal lobe consists of the hippocampus, _______ and _________
Subiculum, amygdala
249
The cases of H.M and E.P. help draw what conclusions?
The medial temporal lobe cannot be the ultimate storage site for long term memory
The medial temporal lobe is not required for working memory
The ability to acquire new memories is a distinct function within the temporal lobe
Specific areas of the brain have specific roles for memory
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