Midterm 1 Flashcards
(138 cards)
1
Q
3 Major Historical Concepts
A
- Mentalism
- Dualism
- Materialism
2
Q
Mentalism
A
The mind is separate from the body
3
Q
Dualism
A
Mind directs rational behaviour
4
Q
Materialism
A
Behaviour can be explained as a function of the nervous system without explanatory recourse to the mind
5
Q
Nerve Net
A
Simple nervous system with sensory and motor neurons
6
Q
Ganglia
A
Structures that resemble and function somewhat like a brain
7
Q
All brains have:
A
> Bilaterally symmetrical and segmented
Brain and spinal cord encased in cartilage/bone
“Crossed” organization:each hemisphere receives info from and control the opposite side
8
Q
4 Theories for why the human brain is large
A
- Climate - when the climate changes we need to be able to adapt
- Food - foraging behaviours are complex, especially finding fruit
- Radiator - a bigger brain allows for better heat regulation so it can increase in size
- Neoteny - The rate of maturation is slowed so there is more time for the brain to develop
9
Q
Dorsal
A
Up
10
Q
Ventral
A
Down
11
Q
Longitudinal Fissure
A
The indent between the two hemispheres
12
Q
Lateral Fissure
A
Separates the temporal from the parietal lobe (horizontally)
13
Q
3 Layers of the Meninges
A
Pia Mater
Arachnoid layer
Dura Matter
14
Q
Neurons
A
Carry out the brain’s major functions
15
Q
Glial Cells
A
Aid and modulate neurons’ activities
16
Q
Nucleus
A
A group of cells forming a cluster
17
Q
Nerve
A
A large collection of axons in the PNS
18
Q
Tract
A
A large collection of axons in the CNS
19
Q
Hindbrain
A
Cerebellum
Reticular Formation
Medulla
Pons
20
Q
Cerebellum
A
Controls complex movements and cognitive functions
21
Q
Reticular formation
A
Regulates the sleep wake cycle
22
Q
Pons
A
Connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Controls important movements in the body
23
Q
Medulla
A
Control breathing and heart rate
24
Q
Tectem (Roof of Midbrain)
A
- Sensory processing (visual and auditory)
- Produces movements to orient the self towards stimuli
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Tegmentum (Floor of midbrain)
- Eye and limb movements
- Specie specific behaviours
- perception of pain
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The 2 principal structures of the Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
| Thalamus
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Basal Ganglia
Control of voluntary movement
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Limbic System
Regulates emotions and behaviours that create and require memory
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3 parts of the basal ganglia
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus Pallidus
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3 Parts of the Limbic system
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Cingulate Nucleus
31
Cranial Nerves
The 12 nerves of the face
Can be afferent, efferent, or both
Can be sensory, motor, or both
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Dermatome
Area of the skin supplied with afferent nerve fibers by a single spinal cord dorsal root
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Dorsal Nerves
Afferent
| They carry information from the body's sensory receptors
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Ventral Nerves
Efferent
| They carry information from the spinal cord to the muscles
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10 Principles of the Brain
1. The brain creates the perceptual world
2. Neuroplasticity is always occurring
3. Many brain circuits are crossed
4. Functions on many levels
5. Both symmetrical and asymmetrical
6. Organized in a hierarchy and in parallel
7. Sensory and motor systems exist throughout the NS
8. Sensory input to the brain is divided for object recognition and motor control (dorsal/ventral)
9. Functions in the brain are both localized and distributed
10. Works by excitation and inhibition
36
What was Golgi's theory of the NS?
The nervous system is composed of a network of interconnected fibers
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What was Cajal's theory of the NS?
That the nervous system was made up of discrete cells called neurons
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2 regions of neurogenesis
Hippocampus
| Sub-ventricular zone
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3 types of neurons
Sensory
Motor
Inter
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5 types of Glial Cells
```
Ependymal
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Micro-glial
Schwann
```
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Ependymal Cells
Secrete cerebro spinal fluid (CSF)
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Astrocyte
Star shaped, they nurture and support the function of neurons (also maintain the blood brain barrier)
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Micro-Glial
They are the immune system of the brain through phagocytosis
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Oligodendrocyte
Glial cell in the CNS that myelinates axons
| >cannot be repaired
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Schwann cells
Glial cells in the PNS that myelinate axons
| > can repair themselves
46
Transgenic Techniques
| What are the 3 types?
Enable scientists to introduce genes into an embryo or remove genes from it
1. Chimeric animals
2. Knock-in
3. Knock-out
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Chimeric Animals
Animals that have cells with genes from both parent species and behaviours that are a products of those gene combinations
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Knock-In Transgenic
A technology where a number of genes from one species is added to the genome of another species and is expressed in subsequent generations
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Knockout Transgeni
A technology used to inactivate a gene so that a line of that animal fails to express it
50
4 Types of Genetic engineering
Selective Breeding
Cloning
Transgenic Techniques
Knockouts
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Epigenetics
The environment can allow a gene to be expressed or prevents expression
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3 methods of epigenetics
1. Histone Modification : DNA may unwrap or be stopped from unwrapping from the histone
2. DNA Modification : Transcription of DNA into mRNA may be enabled or blocked
3. mRNA modification : mRNA translation may be enabled or blocked
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The ions __ and __ have higher concentration inside the cell, and the ions __ and __ are more concentrated outside the cell
A- and K+
| Cl- and Na+
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Which ion is free to enter and leave the cell?
K+
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__ ion has channels that are normally closed
Na+
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How does a sodium potassium pump work?
it pumps out 3 Na+ out and pulls 2 K+ in
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How is resting potential maintained?
- Large A- molecules cannot leave the cell making it negative
- K+ and Cl- can move freely, but gated channels keep Na+ out
- Sodium potassium pumps
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How many connections can one neuron establish?
More than 50 000
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Summation of Inputs
Temporal Summation = Pulses that occur at approx. the came time on a membrane and are summed
Spatial Summation = Pulses that occur at approx the same location on the membrane are summed
60
What voltage is needed to reach the threshold?
About -50mV
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At what location on the neuron must the threshold be reached?
At the axon hillock
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Hyperpolarization
The cell becoming more negative by either an efflux of K+ or an influx of Cl-
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Depolarization
Cell becoming more positive by an influx of Na+, which is caused by the opening of the normally closed gated sodium channels
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Action Potential
Large, brief reversal in polarity of an axon that lasts around 1ms
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Which ion channels are more sensitive and therefore open sooner?
Sodium Na+ channels are more sensitive than K+ channels
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Absolute refractory
During the rise and fall of the action potential, it is a time when it is impossible for there to be another action potential
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Relatively refractory
After an action potential during the hyperpolarization, the cell can fire again, but it needs a lot if depolarization
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Where do IPSPs act?
On the cell body
| > Enables a stop switch
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Where to EPSPs act?
On the dendrites
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Nerve Impulse
A term that describes the whole propagation of the action potential
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Saltatory Conduction
Propagation of an action potential at successive nodes of Ranvier
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Back Propagation
Reverse movement of an action potential from the axon hillock into the dendritic field
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Psychoactive Drug
Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behaviour and is used to manage neuropsychological illness
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Ways to take drugs
1. Injecting into the brain (fastest)
2. Orally (safest and easiest)
3. Injecting into muscle (lot of barriers)
4. Inhalation (quick)
5. Inject into bloodstream (fastest out of brain)
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Blood Brain Barrier
Helps to keep most substances out of the brain
Astrocytes cover the gaps between the endothelial cells in the capillaries.
The astrocytes can move to selectively let substances in.
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Areas in the brain where there is no blood brain barrier q
Area Postrema
| Pineal gland
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Catabolize
When something is being broken down to be excreted
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Metabolize
When something is being broken down to be converted into something else
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How does the body eliminate drugs?
They are catabolized in the liver
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The main excitatory NT
Glutamate
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The main inhibitory NT
GABA
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Storage Granule (presynaptic)
Membranous compartment that holds several vesicles containing the neurotransmitters
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Agonist
Substances that enhance the function of a synapse
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Antagonist
Substance that blocks/decreases the function of the synapse
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Drug Action in the Synapse (7)
1. Synthesis of the NT
2. Storage of the NT in vesicles
3. Release of the NT
4. Receptor interaction
5. Inactivation of excess NT
6. Reuptake into presynaptic terminal
7. Degradation of excess NT
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Tolerance
Habituation : a learned behaviour results when a response to a stimulus weakens with repeated presentations
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Sensitization
An increased responsiveness to successive equal doses
> Can be triggered by environmental cues
> more common with occasional use
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Sensitization
An increased responsiveness to successive equal doses
> Can be triggered by environmental cues
> more common with occasional use
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3 Types of drug relapse
1. Cue induced
2. Stress
3. The drug itself
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Classification of Psychoactive Drugs (5)
1. Anti-anxiety agents and sedative hypnotics
2. Antipsychotic Agents
3. Antidepressants/Mood stabilizers
4. Opioid analgesics
5. Psychotropics
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Anxiety Drugs
Benzodiazepine
Barbiturates
Other sedatives
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Antipsychotic Drugs
First generation : phenothiazines
| Second generation : clozapine
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Antidepressant drugs
MAO inhibitors
Tricyclic
SSRI
94
Mood stabilizers
Lithium
95
Opioid
Morphine, cocaine, heroin
| Endomorphins
96
Psychotropics
Behavioural Stimulants : cocaine
Psychedelic/Hallucinogens
General stimulants
97
Cross Tolerance
Tolerance across a drug class, even to new drugs
98
2 Sites of the GABAa receptor
1. Sedative-Hypnotic Site : Alcohol and Barbituates
>Direct influx of Cl-, easy to overdose
2. Anti-anxiety Site: Benzodiazepines
>Enhances GABA binding, hard to overdose
99
Barbituates
Produce sleep and sedation
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Benzodiazepines
Minor tranquilizer
| Anti-anxiety agent
101
Dissociative anesthetics
Sedative-hypnotics developed as anesthetics that produce altered states and hallucinations
102
Side effect of the first generation antipsychotics
Blocks D2 receptor and can cause Parkinson's symptoms
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Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
Symptoms due to excess activity of the NT dopamine
>Antipsychotics block dopamine
>Too much dopamine causes schizo symptoms
104
Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors
Block the enzyme MAO from degrading NT like dopamine. noradrenaline and serotonin
105
Tricyclic Antidepressants
First generation that block serotonin reuptake transporter proteins
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SSRIs
Block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic terminal
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Mood Stabilizers
Mute the intensity of the mania so the depression is less likely to occur
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2 Sources of Opioids
1. Opium from the poppy seed
| 2. Endorphins in the brain
109
Behavioural Stimulants
Increase motor behaviour and elevate a person's mood and level of alertness
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Nalorphine and Naloxone
Drugs that block the receptors that opioids bind to
| >used to treat overdoses
111
Heroin
Synthesized from morphine
| >More fat soluble so it penetrates the BBB faster
112
Amphetamine
Blocks the dopamine reuptake and stimulates the release of dopamine
113
Cocaine
Blocks dopamine reuptake
114
Psychedelic Drugs
Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes and can produce hallucinations
115
Disinhibition Theory
Alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortex while sparing the subcortical structures
> Doing dumb things because they are "too drunk to know better"
116
Substance Abuse
Taking a lot of a drug and relying on it
| > Not necessarily bad, could be for a medical reason
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Addiction
A person is physically dependent on the drug, is abusing the drug, and has developed a tolerance to it
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Important role of dopamine in drug abuse
All drugs release dopamine either directly or indirectly
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Incentive-Sensitization Theory
Wanting (craving) and liking (pleasure) may be produced by different parts of the brain
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Wanting part of drug use
- Sensitizes with repeated drug use, craving increases
| >Mesolimbic Dopamine System
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Liking part of drug use
Tolerance develops with repeated drug use, pleasure decreases
> Opioid neurons (Endorphines)
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Factors that play into likelihood of drug use
1. Genetics (although no gene has been identified)
2. Personality (risk-taking)
3. Epigenetics
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Drugs that have been associated with brain damage
1. Amphetamines (MDMA, Meth)
2. Cocaine
3. Phencyclidine
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Hierarchical Control of Hormones
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Target endocrine glands
Target organs and tissues
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Organizational hypothesis of hormones
Proposal that actions of hormones during development alter tissue differentiation
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Activation hypothesis of hormones
Proposal that once people hit puberty that hormones will kick in for sexual development
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What is Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)?
A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a a piece of DNA in order to generate thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence
128
How does the Amplification in PCR work?
1. Denaturation : DNA is heated to separate the strands
2. Annealing : Short DNA molecules called primers bind to each end of the target DNA
Extension : DNA polymerase extends the 3' end of each primer along the template strands
129
What can PCR be used for?
- To genotype an animal
- see if there is the expression of a particular gene
> Used to look at transgenetic animals
130
Translating Ribosome Affinity Purification (TRAP)
Used to get a snapshot of what proteins are being made at any given time
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4 steps of TRAP
1. Dissect brain tissue
2. Freeze ribosomes to mRNA
3. Extract polysomes
4. Sequence mRNA
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How do you extract the polysomes in TRAP?
Make magnetic beads attach to the ribosome in the cell and then drag them out with a magnet. Then wash the extra tissue until you just have the mRNA
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Optogenetics
Using light to selectively activate (or inhibit) genetically modified cells
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How does optogenetics work?
Take photo sensitive protein from algae, insert it into the DNA of a particular cell and stimulate that cell at will with light
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2 ways of targeting cell in Optogenetics
1. Trangenic Technology - gene of interest integrated into embryonic cells
> Problem is that it will be expressed everywhere
2. Viral Induction - virus delivers gene of interest to target region
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2 conditions of a neural stem cell
1. Unlimited self-renewal
| 2. Multipotency = can turn into a neuron, astrocyte, or oligodendrocyte
137
Neurosphere Assays
Making a cell culture of neural stem cells
| > Used to check if they really are stem cells
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Behavioural Methods
1. Open Field Test (mice in an open box, see how much time in open and by walls)
2. Elevated Plus Maze
3. Water Maze (learning task, find the platform)
4. Forced Swim Task (swim or float depression)
