Midterm 1 - Readings Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Frustration-Aggression Connection?
A
The early developed hypotheses on aggression that tied aggression to ALWAYS be a response to frustration
We now know this is not fully the case. Instead, frustration is seen as necessary for aggression but not sufficient alone.
2
Q
Typically “frustration” occurs in response to ———- and ———which creates an aggressive response in studies
A
insults, humiliation
3
Q
When induced frustration in studies does not involve humiliation, what happens?
Provide an example
A
There is no aggressive response!
Example: Bus did not stop for you at the bus stop because its “NIS” (no aggressive response occurred)
4
Q
Given frustration without humiliation does not result in agression, what does this suggest?
A
that frustration is understood as significant loss!
(deflation of one’s worth/dignity)
5
Q
What is significant loss?
A
a feeling of deflation of one’s self worth and dignity on a personal level
6
Q
The idea that significant loss causes aggression is consistent with the body of research on the ————— hypothesis
A
frustration-aggression
7
Q
Explain the two examples provided in the reading about significant loss causing aggression.
What is the main takeaway from these studies?
A
Study 1:
* Participants were “incels” that consider themselves to not be able to attract women sexually (feelings of significant loss) and are hostile to women as a result
* The level of significant loss was associated with an increased likelihood to commit rape
* TAKEAWAY: significant loss predicts hostility towards women
Study 2:
* Automated text analysis of Yelp reviews of coffee shops in Austin, Texas, and of U.S. hotels.
* Terms like “humiliation”, “shame” or “insult” related to significance loss people experienced at the evaluated establishments were negatively correlated to the number of Yelp review stars they gave to a given coffee shop or hotel.
* TAKEAWAY: significant loss predicts aggressive reviews of establishmesnts
8
Q
Peers and superiors should be held partly responsible for people’s aggression because…
A
they contribute to the social context where that aggression is taking place!
The individual is not soley responsible for the aggressive behaviour as there has to be a provocation
9
Q
What does social psychology research emphazise?
A
The power of the social context
10
Q
Anyone can be agressive if ——, ———–, or ——
A
provoked, stressed, ot hot
11
Q
The Military Police Brigade guardian for Abu Ghraib prisoners fit all the social conditions known to cause aggression?
A
- Stressed (at war, constant danger)
- Untrained for job
- Identity lost/moral suffered
- Hot and uncomfortable
12
Q
The fact that the prisoners were part of a group that were viewed as enemies would ——— the tendency for gaurds to feel spontaneous ——– against outgroups.
A
exaggerate
prejudice
13
Q
What is the main principle regarding outgroups in social psychology? How does this apply to gaurds and Abu Ghraib prisoners?
A
People prefer their own group and attribute bad behaviour to outgroups
Emotional prejudices (ex. Disgust) appear more rapidly towards outgroups (which are formed from the social context)
For gaurds, being around a “disgusting” kind of outgroup creates a combination of excluding/demeaning behavior, attacking behavior, and active and passive harm.
14
Q
What is a “normal” scenario where outgroup bias appears, according to the reading?
A
In a national sample of Americans who reported that allegedly contemptible outgroups (homeless people, welfare recipients, Turks, and Arabs) are often are attacked or excluded
15
Q
Prejudice especially festers if people see the outgroup as threatening cherished ——
A
VALUES
15
Q
Categorization of people as interchangeable members of an outgroup triggers an ——- response of ——— or ———, depending on the social context.
A
AMYGDALA response
either disgust or arousal
16
Q
What are the aspects of the Military Police Brigade gaurds social environment that caused aggression from gaurds?
*very important main points to know
A
- Impression that the prisoners were disgusting and subhuman
- Guards conformed to peers
- Guards were obedient to authority
17
Q
Ordinary people are able to engage in destructive behaviour if they beleive that they are what?
A
under or being ordered by legitamte authority
*obedience to authority is present in every culture!
18
Q
Torture is partly a crime of —————–
A
socialized obedience
19
Q
Is social conformity harmful? Why or why not?
A
Social conformity in itself is not harmful. The consequences can be good or bad depending on the context.
20
Q
Does social influence start with smaller or larger actions to begin with?
A
Starts with small actions, and then followed by more serious actions
21
Q
The same social contexts that provoke abse can also be used to prevent abuse. Provide an example of this.
A
Ex. If some Iraquis work alongside guards, other guards are less likely to abuse Iraqi prisoners
…because the social context that they learn changes the perspective of viewing the outgroup as “disgusting”, etc.
22
Q
What are the two reasons why people are unware of their incompetence?
A
- The lack of skill deprives people of the ability to produce correct responses
- The lack of expertise necessary to know that they are not producing correct responses
23
Q
People often judge their performance based off of what?
A
their perconcieved notions of their skills!
24
In the study with psychology students taking an exam, what did it reveal about unawareness of incompetence?
Students estimated:
- their performance
- their knowledge of the course material relative to other students
- their raw score on the test
FINDING = Students who scored in the bottom quartile drastically overestimated their performance on the test!
25
What are a few real world examples of people overestimating their performance (according to the reading?)
- Debate teams overestimate their performance
- Medical residents overestimating their patient-interviewing skills
*These patterns even appear when participants are promised $100 for the accuracy of their performance! (demonstrating that people are giving honest evaluations)
26
What is the double curse?
The skills needed to produce correct responses are ALSO needed to evaluate the accuracy of one’s responses.
Essentially, if people lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are "cursed" with the inability to know when their answer's, or anyone's, are wrong
27
Incompetence means that people cannot successfully complete the task of -----------------.
metacognition!
Which is the ability to evaluate responses as correct or incorrect
28
-------- performers have more difficulty with metacognitive judgements than --------- performers
POOR performers have a harder time with metacognitive judgements
Ex. students doing poorly on an exam are not able to distinguish between which questions they are getting right and which ones they’re getting wrong.
29
What hypothesis arises with the idea of the double curse?
If poor performers are given the skills necessary to distinguish correct from incorrect answers.... then they would be in a position to recognize their own incompetence
30
What study was provided in the reading that tested the double curse hypothesis?
Phase 1: Participants tested their ability to solve a problem (poor performers overestimated their performance)
Phase 2: Gave half the participants a mini lecture on how to solve the problem (giving them the skills to distinguish accurate from inaccurate)
When given their tests back, those who got the lecture provided much more accurate self-ratings than their original ratings. (lowered their confidence in their own ability, even though the lecture would technically strengthen, not weaken, their ability)
31
How do top performers esimate their own performance? What about their performance relavtive to others?
Top performers have a good sense in how they estimate their own performance
HOWEVER, they tend to **underestimate** how their performance compares with other peoples performances.
32
What can be done to change the underestimation of performance relative to others for top performers?
Can change by showing them responses of other people → makes them realize how good their performances are.
Ex. showing people who are good at grammar to evaluate the grammar of others makes them understand their skills
*This exercise has no effect on the self-impressions of poor performers!
33
What is the bottom-up approach of competence perceptions?
making judgements of competence based on their experience with that specific situation
34
What is the top-down approach of competence perceptions?
making judgements of competence based on **preconcieved belief**s about their skills relavent to that situation
35
Is the top-down or bottom-up approach mostly how perceptions of competence arise?
TOP-DOWN is mostly responsible
Means that preconcieved notions of skill can lead to error in people's performance estimates
36
What study demonstrates top-down performance estimates?
| *abstract reasoning vs computer programing test
1. Half of participants told they were taking an abstract reasoning test
2. Other half told they were taking a test on computer programing
3. All participants took the same abstract reasoning test (only the framing of what the test would be was different)
4. All participants scored the same, but those who were told they were taking an abstract reasoning test estimated that they performed better, than those who thought they were taking a computer program test
*demonstrates that preconcieved beleifs about skills (top-down approach) impacts estimated competence
37
What is a real world consequence of top-down performance estimates in regards to gender?
Women leave science careers more disproportionately than men likely because of the preconviced beleive that they are less scientifically talented than men
Study showed that women rated themselves worse on science skills before a test, and also worse on their performance after the test compared to men (when there was no gender differences in performance)
When participants were offered after the test to partake in a science contest, more women declined the offer than men.
***demonstrates that perception of performance based on beliefs, not real performance, influences decisions for the future!**
38
It is not ignorance, but ------------- or ignorance, that is the death of knowledge!
ignorance!!
39
Define the Bias Blindspot (BBS)
the idea that people understand biases exist but fail to see their own susceptibility to bias.
BBS prevents people from correcting their biases and leaves the bias to occur towards others
40
BBS has been identified in over ------ different social, cognitive, and behavioral biases
50!!
41
When assessing the BBS, when do you know the BBS has emerged?
When people rate themselves and others differently when rating their own and other's suseptibility to bias
42
In a test-taking context, what did the study on self-serving bias reveal?
Self-serving bias = tendency to attribute successes as our own and failures to others.
Two participants took a test in pairs:
* Person 1 is told they performed well on a test so they praise the test
* Person 2 is told they performed poorly on a test criticize the test
After the pair discusses how they thought the test went (after getting that feedback) → both of them were more likely to detect bias in the OTHER person’s assessment of the test than their own.
43
At what age does BBS first show up in children?
Age 7
Ex. Children were told that “sometimes people pick their best friend to be the winner even though someone else did the best because they want their friend to be happy” → children rated a “regular kid” more likely to act that way than them
44
The BBS arising in children is associated with what developmental shift?
| What paiget stage does the shift represent?
A shift from assuming everyone is objective (not-biased) --> recognizing bias in others
It updates Piaget's stage of EGOCENTRISM where children beleive that the world thinks the same as them
(demonstrates that children's confidence in their objectivity continutes into adulthood)
45
Are BBS levels differently for people with higher cognitive ability?
NO!
In fact, BBS is actually more pronounced among people who score highly on cognitive ability and a tendency to think deliberately
| Ex. those with higher SAT scores were not found to be less biased
46
Biases operate on a --------- level
UNCONSCIOUS
47
Define itrospection illusion
illusion where people believe they can accurately understand their own thoughts a feelings, especially regarding biases!
People trust their inner feelings for judging but expecting other people to rely on external information (actions, statistics, etc.) to make judgements... creates an illusion!
Ex. Someone might think "I’m not biased at all in my hiring decisions," just because they feel that way when looking inside themselves.
48
------------- illusion makes people overestimate their ability to see their biases because they trust their inner feelings.
introspection
Introspection illusion =when people believe they can accurately understand their own thoughts a feelings, especially regarding biases
49
Define objectivity illusion (or niave realism)
people overlook their objectivity and conclude that those they disagree with must be biased
Even trivial disagreements on food, art, or music can reveal BBS as people remain strong in beleiving their perceptions are correct
50
What does the objectivity illusion stem from?
Stems people’s egocentrism and confidence that their perceptions directly reflect what is in their reality!!
They are so confident in their views that if you disagree with them you MUST be biased!
51
In a study where people claimed there was no correct views with art preferences, what illusion was exemplified? What does it demonstrate?
Objectivity Illusion
People said that there are no correct views with art preferences, but they also claimed that the art they preferred was objectively better!
Participants then went on to claim that those who had different art preferences were less principled and would make worse community members/leaders
*demonstrates that trivial disagreements can have big consequences
52
Draw the map of how BSS and the objectivity illusion can lead to conflict?
Individuals disagree →
attribute that disagreement to the irrationality and bias of the other person →
that attribution leads them to respond to the other person aggressively rather than fairly →
other person views that response as irrational, making them see them as biased
(spiral continues!)
53
BBS is shown in real-world domains. What are the 7 domains listed in the article?
1. Forensics
2. Investing
3. Political Polarization
4. Policing
5. Judges and juries
6. Human resources
7. Medicine
54
What is the most common efort to reduce bias? Does it work?
Most common effort to reduce bias is to consiously avoid being biased
This does NOT work because of the BBS...
Looking inward to your own thoughts will not reveal any biases, but instead improve one's sense of objectivity!
55
People are often unconcerned about the effects of biasing decision processes when it comes to their own decisions. What is an example that demonstrates this tendency?
Looking at paintings and knowing which one’s were painted by someone famous:
- People acknowledged that the procedure was biased, but they still made decisions that were biased with that procedure by rating paintings done by famous artisits as better!
56
What is the self-diagnosis strategy for bias and what is the solution?
Self-diagnosis: "conciously focus on not being biased"...
BBS = "I made sure to be unbiased, so I am confident I was objective"
Solution: "Wise" Diagnosis = have people assess the bias of others who behaved the same way as them
57
What is the Educational Intervention strategy for bias and what is the solution?
Educational Intervention: "if we educate people on biases, they can overcome them"
BBS: "Interesting! I see that, but I do not show those biases"
Solution: "Wise" Education: Teach the underlying psychology of why people tend to judge others differently than themselves.
58
What is the limiting exposure strategy for bias and what is the SOLUTION?
Limiting exposure: "If people are not exposed to biasing info, it can't bias them"
BBS: "I do not think I need to block by access to it because it would not bias me"
Solution: "Wise" Exposure: Adopt exposure limiting procedures at policy levels rather than individuals, and try to control timing of exposure when possible"
59
Conducting interviews behind a screen so physical characteristics don’t cause biases is consistent with what strategy of bias-limting procedures?
"Limiting Exposure" strategy
People resist these procedures because of the BBS
60
When people recieve negative feedback and tell themselves that they are actually good at the task, do people feel better or worse about themselves!
Worse!
Doing this can amplify imposter feelings
61
Self-affirmation can restore ------------!
Self-esteem!
62
What is self-affirmation?
| Provide an example
focus on “bigger picture” aspects of themselves such as core values that make them feel capable and worthy
Example:
If criticized at work for the way you wrote a report, thinking about a value that is important to you, such as "family" or "kindness", can restore self-esteem.
63
Self-affirmation can improve a student's ----------- ----------
acedemic performance!
especially for students who come from disadvantaged backgrounds!
64
Explain the methods of a study conducted to see if people understand the benefits of self-affirmation
| What is the finding?
Presented participants with scenarios that involved either self-esteem threats or other negative experiences:
1. Self Esteem Threat: “Your writing instructor has offered to provide you feedback to improve your story but will make you feel bad about your writing"
2. Negaitive Experience (Physical Pain) → “You wake up with a pinched nerve in your neck and cannot turn your head. Imagine your goal is to manage this.”
For each scenario, they indicated how much each of these two responses might help them:
- A self-affirmation value that was important to them
- “Shake it off”
FINDING:
People said self-affirmation could make them feel better for both low self-esteem and physical pain → BUT… **they believed saying “shake it off” could work better** (unexpected result)
65
In a study comparing self-affirmation to positive-self talk, people thought both self-affirmation and positive-self talk would be equally as effective for helping self-esteem and physical pain.
Why is this surprising?!
This is surprising because it has been shown that when people engage in positive-self talk that contradict negative feedback it makes them feel worse!!
(Ex. Getting bad grade on paper and then telling yourself you're a great writer makes you feel worse)
Demonstrates that people are not intuitive to know that self-affirmation is better for improving self-esteem
66
What is social embeddedness?
A desire to belong to a larger, societal-level collective
When we feel a lack of embeddedness in society, we are driven to fill it (primitive system)
67
What are dyadic bonds?
initimate, close relationships
Family, romantic relationships, close friendships
68
How does human evolution relate to our need for social embededness/belonging?
Humans survived as a species because they lived and worked together
This developed a primitive system for belonging. Now, when we lack it, we are driven to fill it. And when we cannot fill it, we feel bad
69
What are 2 aspects about social embeddedness/belonging?
1. It is broad (the need can be filled by any activity that makes a person feel embedded into a larger societal context)
2. It operates at an implicit level (unconcious)
70
Research shows that the brain acts similarly towards people around us physically and people we follow on social media. What are these bonds with non-interacting people called?
Parasocial Bonds!!
71
What are parasocial bonds?
social bonds to non interacting people (celebrities, vloggers, tv show characters, etc.)
These bonds help us sustain social connections (rather than worsen them)
Feeling connected to a celeberty also connects you to the other people who vlaue them
72
------------- do not threaten rejection, which can help people who fear rejection feel socially embedded
Parasocial bonds
73
Parasocial bonds meet -------- needs, but not -------- needs.
embededdness
dyadic
74
What are narratives?
TV shows, movies, books
They can fill the need for social embededness!
75
What is the social surrogacy hypothesis?
Thinking about valued narratives leads to feelings of belonging and protects against social isolation and rejection!
STUDY:
* Belongingness needs arose by having participants write about times when they were rejected. After, writing about their favorite television show helped eliminate the negative psychological consequences of feeling rejection.
76
What study demonstrates the narrative collective assimilation hypothesis?
| What does it demonstrate?
Participants read pages from either Harry Potter of Twilight:
After reading, completed a identity implicit-association test (IAT) that assessed the degree to which they identified with the group “wizards” and the group “vampires” and also assessed well-being and mood
FINDIND: Participants who read the Harry Potter books psychologically became wizards, whereas those who read the Twilight books psychologically became vampire
Demonstrates that engaging in narratives makes people feel belonging because there is a general sense of social connection to characters.
77
Define collective effervesence
feeling of social connection and sensation of sacredness that people sometimes experience when part of a crowd
Attending a concert, sporting event, or larger group event can produce collective effervescence!!
78
Experiencing collective effervescence is linked to what benefits?
- life satisfaction
- having more meaning in one’s life
- decreased anxiety and depression
because.. standing in a crowd of people expereincing the same thing gives us a sense of belonging
79
Do interactions with strangers make people feel better or worse about themselves?
Better!!
People often assume talking to a stranger would make an experience worse, when really, it makes it better!!
Example Study Finding:
Students told to talk to people who sit next to them in class or with a cashier at coffee shop showed increased happiness
80
Eye contact with stranger decreases feelings of disconnection. What does this finding demonstrate for social embeddedness?
demonstrates that fleeting interactions with strangers makes people feel more connected and happy!
this is because it fills the need of embeddedness, which operates at an implicit level
*may explain why we are so willing to help strangers
81
Why do people have such strong reactions towards ostracism?
Because of the primitive need to feel socially embedded!!
Feeling excluded on purpose threatens belonging and lowers mood.
82
Going to concerts, watching tv, engaging in fandoms, and talking to strangers all helps our desire to -----------.
BELONG! (connects us to a larger collective)
Anti-social behaviours (reading, watching tv) are not lazy, but are important for humans to feel connected.
83
What is replication?
Idea that experiments must be replicated in order to find out if the results will be consistent
84
What is the replication crisis?
Many significant psychological findings can not be replicated!
Scientists have realized that common methodological practices allowed false positives to occur!!
85
What are potential reasons for why a study result does not replicate?
* Experimenters doing the replication messed something up
* The original study was a false positive
* The human subjects have changed over time which makes it hard for a true replication
86
Even among studies that are replicated, the effect size decreased about half. What does this mean?
Means that the original researchers likely overstated the power of the manipulation/results!
87
When studies do not replicate, it does not fully disprove the hypothesis, but does change the story. How is the replication of the Marshmellow Test an example of this?
Marshmallow Test = originally showed that the ability to delay gratification early in life is correlated to success later
Replication:
* When researchers controlled for factors like family background, the correlation was not significant.
The new takeaway of the study is that delay of gratification does not positively impact one’s life later, but it is a consequence of other components of a person and their background
88
In what year did the replication start? When did it worsen? Why?
**Started in 2010** because a paper using proper experimental methods published evidence that people can percive the future (which is impossible!)
This made researchers understand that drawing on small smaple sizes was not sufficient to confirm true effects
**Crisis worsened in 2015** when a report came out that replicated a bunch of studies, and only 40% of them held up.
89
Many of the papers that failed to replicate sound "----------------."
too good to be true!!
Demonstrates a common hindsight bias where when someone makes a hard choice, we often are biased to find reasons to why we made that choice.
(make a large finding, we are gointg to try and find reasons to back it up!)
90
What are some signs that social science is getting better?
* More scientists are pre registering their study designs
* Journals are demanding larger subject pools
* Journals insisting researchers share ALL data from experiments for others to see.
91
What is convert communication?
communication that is subtle, mostly non-verbal, and usually unintended
92
What are pygmalion studies?
a category of study that investigates how expectations can influence performance
*often performed in school settings
93
Are interspersonal expectancy effects shown in labs/classrooms replicable in real life?
Yes!
Examples:
* Medicene: surgeons using a bossy tone of voice were more likely to be sued by their patients than a surgeon who uses a respectful tone.
* Judges beleifs of defendents effects juror decisions
94
Explain what each of these variables mean? What process does this represent?
The process that allows the interpersonal expectancy effect to occur:
E = expectancy for behavior of another person
M = Communication (mediating) variables
O = response (outcome) of the person who the expectations were for
95
Which of the links in this diagram are causal? Which as not?
The** E-O and E-M links are causal ** because E is experimentally induced
**M-O link is NOT causal **because M is usually not experimentally manipulated!
96
What is four factor theory?
four major categories of how teachers’s expectations affect student performance
(these factors are mediating factors: M)
Factors:
1. Climate (warmer environment)
2. Input (teach more material)
3. Output (call on certain students)
4. Feedback (more differnciated feeback)
97
What is differentiated feeback?
For students where the teacher has high expectations for, their feedback is more accurate and will tell student if they are correct or *incorrect*
This is unlike students who they have low expecations for, where they will accept subpar answers with little explination.
98
In the meta-analysis of the E--> M --> O link for four factor theory, which factors were statisitically significant. Which ones were highest in significance?
ALL four factors were statistically significant.
However, CLIMATE and INPUT had the most significant effect
**Meaning, teachers *teach more* and *teach it more warmly* to students they have high expectations for.**
99
How does convert communication influence jurror's decison about defenants?
What judges beleive about the guilt of defendant (E) affects how they instruct the jurors (E-M link)
The instructions (M) influence jurror’s decision (O) about defendant (M-O link)
Effect size was significant → indicates that jury’s would think the defendant is more guilty if received instructions from a judge who thinks the defendant is guilty.
100
Raising caretaker’s expectations for patients' health led to reduced depression in the residents. What psychological concept is *most* responsible for this effect?
Convert communication!
Expectations of worker's influences the health outcomes of patients
101
What are thin slices?
video or audio clips lasting less than a minute
*used to study subtle aspects of nonverbal behavior
102
When thin slices are used in studies, does the length of the clip make a difference?
NO! How long the clip is does not make a difference (ex. 30 secs vs 5 minutes)
Demonstrates that first impressions are more often correct than people might think!
103
What are some examples of studies that used thin slices? What was the findings?
Studies on thin slices reveal:
* surgeons who use a bossier tone of voice (and therefore deemed to care less about patients) were more likely to be sued than less bossy and more caring surgeons.
* Doctor tone of voice when talking to patients affected how successful they could get alcoholic patients to enter treatment
* High school students rate teachers better who have nonverbal qualities of warmth, enthusiasm, and likeability in their voice.
104
Why can we not draw on a causal conclusion about the M-O link?
Athough the relationships between mediating variables (ex. the four factors involved in teaching) and outcome variables (ex. student performance) are well established, it is not possible to say that these are causal links because the mediators are rarely manipulated experimentally!
For example:
* Might think that teacher expectations (E) cause BOTH teacher warmth (M) and intellectual performance (O)
BUT… to test the M-O link, you would have to manipulate teacher warmth *directly* on intellectual performance.
105
The process in which the expectation of a person has on the behavior of another person creates a -------------.
self-fulfilling prophecy!!
AKA: the behavior that is expected actually comes to happen in reality because the person expecting it expected it.
106
One of the most common, underappreciated uses of imagination for adults is -------------.
counterfactual thinking!
107
When engaging in counterfactual thinking, are people are more likely to mutate actions or inactions?
ACTIONS
(events that can be "controlled" vs uncontrollable events)
108
Imagination has always thought to be random with no order, up until when? What created this shift?
Changed in the early 1980s with Douglas R. Hofstader’s theory:
Proposed that the **mind is a series of “fault lines”**
→ When we think about the different ways events could have happened, **we tend to be predictable and only alter certain things.**
Since Hofstader’s insight, cognitive scientists have mapped these fault lines and tried to understand their purpose.
109
What is norm theory?
People derive from experiences a series of templates or “norms” which we use to compare against imagined alternative realities when we counterfactually think
The idea that there is some order to how people imagine scenarios is accurate (think of the predictability of fault lines where we only change certain things)
Ex.
Norm of leaving work = leave at 5pm, take highway
If reality differs from this norm (ex. leave later or take marine drive) and something happens, there will be a focus on these "out of the norm" events when thinking of alternative realities
110
Most counterfactual thoughts occur when we do not reach a desired -----.
GOAL
111
What is an upward counterfactual?
Imagining a better alternative to a bad event
(makes us feel bad, usually **regret!**)
Ex. If I went to bed earlier last night, I would not have slept through my exam this morning
112
What is a downward counterfactual?
imagining a worse alternative to a good event
(makes us feel good, usually **releif!**)
Ex. “If I missed that shot we would have lost the game”
113
People often imagine counterfactual thoughts that will never happen again (hence does not prepare us for a future). What would be useful about these counterfactuals then?
They can help enhance the importance we attach to past events!
Studies show that counterfactual thinking did make events more significant or seem "destined" to happen
Ex. thinking about the "what ifs" of not going to Portside and meeting Niall, makes the event seem more significant and have more emotional weight
114
When memories are recalled, they return to storage in a "new form". What does this mean?
When that memory is recalled again, some of the memory may be “edited”
This can happen when engaging in counterfactual thoughts of a memory:
When someone imagines very possible alternatives to a memory or event they have, the brain behaves the same way as it does when “remembering”, which can alter the memory when returned.
115
When someone imagines very possible alternatives to a memory or event they have, the brain behaves the same way as it does when “----------”
remembering!
This does NOT happen when alternatives that were not very likely to have happened are thought of.
116
Is it true that counterfactual thinking can often improve one’s wellbeing?
Yes!!
117
In a study, participants were asked to reimagine past events multiple times. What were the findings?
| *think about counterfactual thinking
Findings: **Repeated simulation of these counterfactuals made participants perceive them as LESS likely over time.** Article suggests that this helps us accept past events and reduce regret
This is unexpected because one might expect that imagining something more would make it feel more realistic.
Example: "If only Sarah had set her alarm earlier, she would have made her interview"
As she continues to imagine the alternative of setting her alarm, she begins to feel that her initial counterfactual thought isn’t as possible: “Even if I had set my alarm, something else might have gone wrong,” reducing her regret and allowing her to move forward!
118
How can counterfactual thinking be benefitial in psychothearapy settings?
In psychotherapy, leveraging imagination can help patients modify harmful memories!!
Therapists can create contexts for clients to reframe emotional content, potentially reducing the impact of negative memories.
119
Does reimagining a different version of a memory strengthen or weaken the original intensity of the memory?
Strengthens the origianl intensity from that memory!
*this is different when you revisit a real memory on its own, where original intensity can weaken.
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In general, counterfactual thinking can help us do what three things?
1. Plan for a better future
2. Ease the burden of our personal pasts
3. Preserve the strong emotions of memories we want to keep
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What is the Counterfactual Inference Effect?
| *really important to understand this fully!
effect where people draw conclusions about what really happened in real life faster when presented with counterfactuals (instead of ordinary conditionals)
*ordinary conditionals = straightforward "if...then" statements about real situations.*
Example:
Counterfactual: "If it snowed yesterday, the roads would be slippery"
Inference: If someone says the "roads are not slippery", people conclude it did not snow yesterday.
(in this case, modus tollens inference)
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Break down the Ruby and Pearl example regarding the counterfactual inference effect and how it works
Counterfactual Statement: "If Ruby had been at the beach, then Pearl would have been in the park."
Presupposed Facts: Along with the counterfactual, people also consider the actual situation, like "Ruby was not at the beach, and Pearl was not in the park."
**Making Inferences:** When asked about the truth of these statements, people might conclude that since Pearl was not in the park, Ruby must not have been at the beach either. **This is often done more easily with counterfactuals than with ordinary conditionals.**
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Differenciate between:
* Modens Ponens
* Modens Tollens
* Affirmatiotion of Consequent
* Denial of the antecedent
Modens Ponens = If A, than B, A therefore B
Modens Tollens = If A, than B, not-B therfore not-A
Affirmation of Consequent = If A, than B, B therefore A
Denial of the Antecedent If A than B, not-A therefore not-B
*important for counterfactual thinking, because these logical conclusions often occur faster for counterfactuals than for ordinary conditionals
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The dual meaning idea of counterfactuals has led to several discoveries, the biggest one being the --------------
Counterfactual Inference Effect!
Inferences about real life are made more readily when presented with counterfactuals than with ordinary conditionals
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What is the dual meaning idea of counterfactuals?
When people engage in counterfactual thinking, two things are condidered at once:
1. Conjecture (what could have happened if the counterfactual were true)
2. Predesposed Facys (what actually happened in reality)
EXAMPLE:
Counterfactual = "If only I had taken the bus, I wouldn't have been late." Now a person thinks of two things:
* Conjecture: "I took the bus, and I arrived on time."
* Presupposed Facts: "I didn't take the bus, and I arrived late."
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Why is the dual meaning of counterfactuals important? What does it tell us?
This dual meaning idea is important because it demonstrates how people connect both the imagined scenario and the actual situation, which helps us better understand the consequences of our actions!
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What are fault lines?
Key events or elements in a situation that people focus on when imagining how things could have turned out differently.
These are often aspects of reality that are perceived as pivotal or significant in determining outcomes.
unusual events, decisions, or circumstances that stand out in people’s minds.
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What are a few examples of fault lines?
**Unusual Choices:** In a story about a car accident, a fault line might be the decision to take a different route instead of the usual one.
**Controllable Events:** If someone was late to an event due to stopping for coffee, the choice to stop for coffee could be a fault line.
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Explain how fault lines can shift?
Different fault lines can shift based on what information is available or what people know about the situation.
For example, if new information emerges that highlights another decision as more critical, that decision becomes the new fault line.
(think about the game show example with Alicia and Mark)
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What is the exceptionality effect? How can this fault like shift
Effect where people think about unusual or exceptional aspects of situations when considering counterfactual scenarios.
(imagine changing that unusual event back to “normal”.)
Example: Mr. Jones leaves work earlier than usual and drives home by his usual route. A truck crashes into him, and he dies.
* Usual response = focus on the exceptionality (if only he had taken a different route)
Fault line SHIFT by changing the situation: Mr. Jones leaves work at his usual time but took an unusual route because of road construction.
* Shift in response = "If only he had taken a completely different route," suggesting a focus on an even more exceptional circumstance (the unusual route due to construction) rather than just reverting to his usual route.
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What is the action effect? How can this fault line shift?
Action Effect = people experience regret based on their decisions, especially when comparing the outcomes of actions they took versus inactions. Usally, people who acted feel MORE regret than those who don't.
Example:
* Jenny's Situation: Jenny owns shares in Company A and considers switching to Company B but decides against it. Later, she learns she would have made $1,200 more if she had switched.
* Lisa's Situation: Lisa owned shares in Company B but switched to Company A. She finds out she would have been $1,200 better off if she had stayed with Company B.
* Usual response: Lisa regrets her decision more! (because she took action)
Fault line SHIFT example: Linda and Cathy are both considering transferring universities. Linda decides to stay, while Cathy decides to transfer. Later, both are dissatisfied with their choices.
* Shift in response: Cathay regrets her decision more at first! But over time, people say Linda regrets her decision more
*(demonstrates that a shift can happen based on duration of dissatisfaction)**
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What is the controllability effect? How can this fault like shift?
Controllability Effect = people feel regret based on whether an event that led to a negative outcome was within their control or not.
Fault Line Example:
Steven is delayed by three minor issues he couldn’t control (a lorry, a tree trunk, a flock of sheep) and one controllable action (deciding to stop for a beer). He arrives home and discovers his wife has died of a heart attack.
* Usual Response: "If only he hadn’t called into the bar for a beer," focusing on the controllable decision.
Fault line shift example:
In a different scenario, Steven experiences three controllable delays (calling to visit elderly parents, going to a restaurant, and going to a shop) and one uncontrollable delay (a traffic jam). He again arrives home to find his wife has died.
* LEAST frequent response: "If only he hadn’t called to visit his elderly parents." This is because this choice is socially appropriate and less likely to evoke regret.
Demonstrates that moral norms effect the counterfactuals people think of!
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The controllability effect illustrates that people are more likely to express more -------- about decisions they directly made than about external factors that affected the outcome.
REGRET
Example:
Decision made in their control = picking emvelope with harder math problem
External factors our of their control = time limits
*shows that personal agency can influence fault line shifts!
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What is the temporal effect? How can this fault line shift?
people tend to focus on the most recent events when reflecting on situations that didn’t go as planned. (timing of actions influences which decision people feel more regret about.)
**Fault Line Example: **Alicia and Mark are playing a card game. Alicia draws a red card first, and then Mark draws a black card. Since they don’t have matching colors, neither wins anything.
* Usual Response: "If only Mark had drawn a red card." This reflects regret about the most recent action (Mark’s choice).
**Fault line shift example:** In another round, Alicia draws a black card first, but then a technical issue pauses the game. After the issue, she draws a red card, and Mark draws a black card again. Neither wins.
* Usual Rerponse: "If only Alicia had drawn a black card." This indicates that the earlier event (Alicia's first card) receives less focus compared to the most recent event.
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--------- norms can affect the counterfactuals that people create
MORAL
People do not tend to imagine a counterfactual alternative to an individual’s action when their reason for the action was a moral one, such as an obligation!
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What is the relationship between counterfactuals and moral/emotional judgments? Is it straightforward?
No, it is not always clear-cut.
Judgments of blame often focus on strong causes, while counterfactual thinking may highlight background factors
Example:
Participants tend to blame a drunk driver who injured a boy, whereas their counterfactual thoughts instead focus on background enablers of the outcome (ex. imagine the boy would not have been injured if his father had collected him
on time)
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How do counterfactuals affect blame?
Counterfactuals affect blame by evaluating whether the actor could have acted differently to prevent the outcome and whether they should have acted differently.
Higher blame of actor = when counterfactuals indicate that changes in the victim's behavior would NOT have changed the outcome.
Lower blame of actor = when counterfactuals indicate that victim's behavior COULD have changed the outcome.
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What are spillover effects?
Effects that occur when mental procedures used in one task influence behavior in an unrelated task.
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What are behavioural mindsets?
cognitive or motor procedures activated during a goal-directed behavior, which can guide future behaviors in different contexts and domains!
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In order for spillove effects to occur, what conditions need to be met?
1. The procedures must be abstract enough to be applicable in different situations.
(ex. Different situation-specific procedures (ex. Comparing two diff candies) are aspects of the same general procedure (ex. Making comparative judgements)
1. The first task increases the accessibility of the procedures, making them easier to apply in subsequent tasks.
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What is a comparative behavioural mind-set?
a mindset where prior comparative judgements can increase the accessibility of procedures that help people decide what to chose in completetly unrelated areas
(causing one to skip/bypassing the decision of whether one wants to choose at all!)
Example:
People facing a box of candies may first decide if they want candy at all, only once they've decided they want one would they compare candies to see which one they want.
But.. If asked to decide on their preferred elective first, the procedures involved may spill to the next task, causing them to immediately focus on which candy they prefer without even considering if they want a candy at all.
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In the realm of persuasion, how do bolstering and counterarguing mindsets impact spillover effects?
Bolstering mind-sets enhance the likelihood of agreeing with messages, thereby facilitating positive spillover effects on evaluations and decisions. (easily persuaded)
Counterarguing mind-sets promote skepticism and critical thinking, leading to negative spillover effects that hinder acceptance of new information. (not easily persuaded)
Example:
Republicans watching a video of a republican politician created a bolstering mind-set, whereas it created a counterarguing mind-set in democrats
They all watched a video from a toyota salesman after, and their mind-set influenced their tendency to agree or disagree with what Toyota was selling.
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What are inference effects in terms of spillover effects?
Inference effects occur when the activated procedures are incompatible with the procedures that would facilitate goal pursuit with another task.
EXAMPLE: solving well-defined problems (ex. a step by step LEGO set) can impair performance on solving similar ill-defined problems (ex. a riddle)
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Why can solving well-defined problems hinder ability to solve ill-defined problems?
Solving well-defined problems can activate a convergent-thinking mind-set, which interferes with the divergent-thinking that is required to solve creative, ill-defined problems
(results in poor performance!)
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Differenciate between cognitive spillovers and motivational spillovers
**Cognitive spillovers** = general behavioral routines activated by a motivation
Example:
when a person is hungry, the cognitive routines associated with acquiring food become more accessible, leading them to acquire unrelated items (like binder clips) simply because the procedure for acquiring items is activated.
**Motivational spillovers** = changes in desire and valuation influenced by a specific motivation.
Example:
If someone is deprived of a reward (like nicotine), they may find unrelated rewards (like snacks) less appealing. Here, the motivation itself alters how individuals perceive and desire other rewards.
