Midterm

Question 1

availability heuristic

Answer 1

things that come to mind easily tend to guide our thinking

Question 2

present/present bias

Answer 2

we often fail to think about what we cannot observe (ex: coincidences)

Question 3

confirmation bias

Answer 3

tendency to look only for info that agrees with what we already believe

Question 4

bias blind spot

Answer 4

belief that we are unlikely to be biased

Question 5

empiricism

Answer 5

using evidence from the senses (or instruments that assist the senses) as the basis for conclusions (ideas/intuitions checked against reality)

Question 6

research question

Answer 6

question researcher seeks to answer (expressed in terms of the variables)

Question 7

inspiration for research questions:

Answer 7

-Informal observations
-Practical problems
-Previous research

Question 8

theory

Answer 8

a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena
-Functional (why)
-Mechanistic (how)

Question 9

theory-data cycle

Answer 9

theory => research question(s) => research design => hypotheses => data => supports & strengthens OR doesn’t support & revises theory/design

Question 10

hypothesis

Answer 10

an empirically testable proposition about some fact/behavior/relationship, usually based on theory, that states an expected outcome resulting from specific conditions or assumptions

Question 11

basic research

Answer 11

conducted primarily to gain a better understanding of phenomena

Question 12

applied research

Answer 12

conducted primarily to address a practical problem

Question 13

translational research

Answer 13

uses the lessons from BASIC research to develop & test APPLICATIONS to healthcare, psychotherapy, treatments, or interventions

Question 14

basic-applied research cycle

Answer 14

Basic research => Applied research => Translational research

Question 15

peer review cycle

Answer 15

1) Author submits manuscript of journal (can suggest certain people to review or not to review)
2) Editors assess the manuscript (rejects, transfers, or sends to reviewers)
3) Reviewed (single-blind, double-blind, transparent, open)
4) Editor addresses comments => Author makes revisions => Editor assesses again
5) Finally rejected, transferred, or accepted

Question 16

empirical papers

Answer 16

-Report of an original study
-Abstract, intro, methods, results, & discussion
-Quantitative info

Question 17

review article

Answer 17

-Qualitative review of the scholarly lit on a topic
-Draw conclusions about trends, controversies, & future directions
-“Review” in title

Question 18

meta-analysis

Answer 18

-Quantitative review of the evidence on a topic (statistical techniques to evaluate weight of evidence)
-“Meta-analysis” in title
-May be one component of a paper

Question 19

theoretical article

Answer 19

-Describes a theory or model of a psychological process in detail
-Integrates empirical & theoretical findings to show how a theory of a model can help guide future research

Question 20

opinion/perspective/thought piece

Answer 20

-Drawing on recent empirical research
-Formulates an opinion about a controversy, important findings, or a disagreement in a theoretical foundation, methodology, or application

Question 21

questions for evaluating a research question

Answer 21

-Is it ethical?
-Is it interesting?
-Is it important?
-Is it feasible?

Question 22

conceptual variable

Answer 22

abstract concept/construct

Question 23

operational variable

Answer 23

describes the way of measuring or manipulating the variable

Question 24

operationalization

Answer 24

process of starting with a conceptual variable & creating an operational variable

Question 25

measured variable

Answer 25

variation is observed & recorded

Question 26

manipulated variable

Answer 26

variation is controlled by researcher

Question 27

what determines if a variable is measured or manipulated?

Answer 27

-Some can ONLY be measured -Some cannot be manipulated ETHICALLY -Some can be either measured OR manipulated

Question 28

frequency claims

Answer 28

describe the rate or degree of a single, measured variable contains a percentage, number, or rate/time phrase

Question 29

association claims

Answer 29

argues that one level of a variable is likely associated with the particular level of another variable (probabilistic)

Question 30

causal claims

Answer 30

argues that one variable is responsible for changing the other

Question 31

requirements to support a causal claim:

Answer 31

-Covariance (change in 1 associated with change in other) -Temporal precedence (directionality) -Internal validity (are other explanations ruled out?)

Question 32

causal claim variables

Answer 32

independent variable (manipulated) dependent variable (measured)

Question 33

association claim variables

Answer 33

predictor variable (~IV) criterion/outcome variable (~DV)

Question 34

construct validity

Answer 34

how well is a conceptual variable operationalized? are you measuring what you think you are?

Question 35

external validity

Answer 35

how well do the results generalize? -To other people -To other settings/situations/contexts

Question 36

statistical validity

Answer 36

how well does the data support the conclusions? what is the likelihood that the results were found by chance?

Question 37

internal validity

Answer 37

are alternative explanations sufficiently ruled out by the study's design?

Question 38

naturalistic observation

Answer 38

observing individuals' behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs

Question 39

case studies

Answer 39

in-depth examinations/observations of an individual (or a few)

Question 40

structured observation

Answer 40

observations made of specific behaviors in a somewhat controlled setting

Question 41

ethogram

Answer 41

inventory of operational definitions of behaviors, used when collecting observation data

Question 42

state (observations)

Answer 42

recording the duration of a behavior

Question 43

event (observations)

Answer 43

record the number of occurrences (behavior treated as instantaneous)

Question 44

focal sampling

Answer 44

record observations of ONE individual -good for obtaining info of subtle or rare behaviors

Question 45

scan sampling

Answer 45

recording behaviors of multiple individuals at once -predetermined interval

Question 46

reactivity

Answer 46

individuals change their behaviors when they know they're being watched

Question 47

observer/expectancy effects

Answer 47

observers subconsciously change the behavior of those they are observing

Question 48

observer bias

Answer 48

observer's expectations influence their interpretation of behaviors

Question 49

validity

Answer 49

accuracy & reliability

Question 50

reliability

Answer 50

necessary for validity, but not sufficient consistency of measurements

Question 51

face validity

Answer 51

measure is subjectively a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable

Question 52

content validity

Answer 52

measure captures all parts of the defined construct

Question 53

criterion validity

Answer 53

measure is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome that is logical

Question 54

known-groups paradigm

Answer 54

test whether scores can discriminate among groups whose behavior is already confirmed

Question 55

convergent validity

Answer 55

measure is most strongly relate to measures of similar constructs

Question 56

discriminant validity

Answer 56

measure is not strongly associated with measures of dissimilar constructs

Question 57

interrater reliability

Answer 57

the degree to which 2+ coders/observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets

Question 58

fixes for low interrater reliability:

Answer 58

-Revised codebook/ethogram -More training -Throw out inconsistent behaviors

Question 59

test-retest reliability

Answer 59

assesses whether scores are consistent each time they're measured

Question 60

internal reliability

Answer 60

assesses whether answers are consistent no matter how the question is phrased

Question 61

cohen's kappa

Answer 61

common measure for interrater reliablity

Question 62

cronbach's alpha

Answer 62

correlation measure typically used for internal reliability

Question 63

when to assess validity & measures

Answer 63

Before used to test a hypothesis

Question 64

pros & cons of surveys:

Answer 64

Pros -Can be very accurate -Sometimes the only way to assess a variable Cons -Can be sensitive to the way that the questions are asked (order, phrasing, scales)

Question 65

forced-choice questions

Answer 65

need to choose between 2+ options (only one)

Question 66

open-ended questions

Answer 66

can answer in a free-write way

Question 67

likert scale questions

Answer 67

strongly agree to strongly disagree

Question 68

semantic differential questions

Answer 68

number rating from one adjective to another

Question 69

primacy effect

Answer 69

more likely to remember words at the beginning of a list

Question 70

recency effect

Answer 70

most recently presented items will most likely be remembered best

Question 71

leading questions

Answer 71

biases people to answer in a certain way

Question 72

double-barreled questions

Answer 72

actually asking 2 questions

Question 73

negatively worded questions

Answer 73

uses double-negative phrasing (confusing)

Question 74

how should questions be ordered?

Answer 74

Broad to focused

Question 75

response sets/non-differentiation

Answer 75

people respond the same way to ALL questions

Question 76

acquiescence response set

Answer 76

responding with "agree" or "strongly agree" to everything solved with reverse-worded questions

Question 77

fence-sitting response set

Answer 77

respondent "plays it safe" by always answering in the middle of the scale solved with no neutral option, even number of response options, or forced-choice questions

Question 78

socially desirable responding

Answer 78

respondents give answers to make them "look better" than they really are solved with anonymity, removing based on target questions

Question 79

biased sample

Answer 79

some members of the population of interest have a higher probability of being included in the sample than others

Question 80

confidence interval (CI)

Answer 80

a range of values, indicated by a lower & upper value, that is designed to capture the population value for an estimate (describes the uncertainty of an estimate)

Question 81

margin of error

Answer 81

half the width of the entire confidence interval

Question 82

correlational statistics

Answer 82

can be used in studies testing all types of claims

Question 83

correlational design

Answer 83

tests an association claim

Question 84

bivariate correlation

Answer 84

an association involving 2 variables

Question 85

common uses of correlational designs:

Answer 85

-How 2 variables relate within individuals -How 2 variables relate between different individuals -How a variable of an individual relates to a variable of the environment

Question 86

statistical validity topics for association claims:

Answer 86

-Strength -Precision -Significance (statistical) -Replication -Outliers -Restriction of range -Curvilinear

Question 87

assessing relationship strength

Answer 87

Direction (+, -, or 0) Strength (magnitude of r) R^2 (variance of Y that is accounted for by X)

Question 88

measures of precision:

Answer 88

-Confidence interval -Margin of error

Question 89

primary indicator of precision

Answer 89

sample size (larger = more precise)

Question 90

probability estimate (p)

Answer 90

what is the likelihood of finding this correlation by chance?

Question 91

null hypothesis significance testing (hypotheses)

Answer 91

Hypothesis => Effect of manipulation; Difference between groups, Correlation btwn variables Null Hypothesis => No effect; No real difference; No correlation

Question 92

NHST possible scenarios

Answer 92

-True positive (data indicates hypothesis is true & it is) -False negative/Type II error (data indicates hypothesis is false, but it is true) -True negative (data indicates the null is true, & it is) -False positive/Type I error (data indicated the null is false, but it is true)

Question 93

outlier

Answer 93

a score that is either much higher or much lower than most of the other scores in a sample can drastically change r & have larger effect when small sample size

Question 94

causes of extreme values:

Answer 94

-Chance -Measurement error -Instrument error -Human error -Unmeasured (third) variable -Incomplete theoretical foundation

Question 95

how to deal with extreme values:

Answer 95

-No definitive rules for what is an outlier -Quantitative ways to test if a single point has a disproportionate influence on an association -Can report results of statistical analyses with & without outliers -May talk about in results & discussion sections

Question 96

restriction of range

Answer 96

is there isn't a full range of scores in one variable, the correlation can appear smaller than it truly is

Question 97

how to solve restriction of range:

Answer 97

-Recruit individuals at the ends of the spectrum -Statistical techniques can help correct

Question 98

multiple/multivariate regression

Answer 98

calculates the proportion of total variability that is due to the effect of different variables helps rule out third variables/control for them

Question 99

beta

Answer 99

similar to r, but describes the strength & direction between 2 variables when one or more variables are controlled for

Question 100

regression tables

Answer 100

-Show beta values of all predictors -Can compare relative importance of variables -No standard guidelines for strong/moderate/weak -p-value of beta => probability that the beta came from a population in which the relationship is 0

Question 101

third variables

Answer 101

A & B only appear related because C causes both A & B

Question 102

mediation variables

Answer 102

a variable that helps explain the relationship between 2 other variables (A & B are related because A leads to C which leads to B)

Question 103

moderation variables

Answer 103

A variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between 2 variables (A & B are related for one type of C, but not for another type of C)

Question 104

covariates

Answer 104

variables being "controlled for"

Question 105

when to use scatterplots:

Answer 105

correlation between two QUANTITATIVE variables

Question 106

when to use histograms/bar graphs:

Answer 106

correlation between a categorical & a quantitative variable

Question 107

when to use a double bar graph/histogram:

Answer 107

correlation between 2 CATEGORICAL variables

Question 108

longitudinal designs

Answer 108

provide evidence for temporal precedence by measuring the same variables in the same subjects/participants at several points in time

Question 109

associations calculated in longitudinal designs:

Answer 109

-Cross-sectional -Autocorrelations -Cross-lag

Question 110

cross-sectional correlations

Answer 110

test whether 2 variables, measured at the same point in time, are correlated

Question 111

problems with cross-sectional correlations:

Answer 111

-Don't establish temporal precedence -Cohort effects

Question 112

cohort effects

Answer 112

differences in generations/ages due to time-periods

Question 113

autocorrelations

Answer 113

test the correlation between one variable & itself, tested at 2 different time points

Question 114

cross-lag correlations

Answer 114

a correlation between an earlier measure of one variable & a later measure of another variable

Question 115

why can't longitudinal & multiple regression establish causation?

Answer 115

-Multiple regression lacks temporal precedence -Longitudinal designs still have a third-variable problem

Question 116

evidence-based treatments

Answer 116

therapies based on research

Question 117

replication

Answer 117

study conducted again to test reliability

Question 118

falsifiability

Answer 118

a hypothesis that, when tested, could fail to support therapy

Question 119

universalism

Answer 119

claims are evaluated according to merit, independent of researcher's credentials/reputation

Question 120

community (scientific norm)

Answer 120

scientific knowledge is created by a community & its findings belong to said community

Question 121

disinterestedness (scientific norm)

Answer 121

scientists strive to discover the truth & it will not be swayed by a scientist's own beliefs

Question 122

organized skepticism (scientific norm)

Answer 122

question everything, including own theories, widely accepted ideas, & "ancient wisdom"

Question 123

self-report measure

Answer 123

recording people's answers to questions about themselves in a questionnaire/interview

Question 124

observational measure

Answer 124

recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors

Question 125

physiological measures

Answer 125

recording bological data

Question 126

categorical variable

Answer 126

categories; nominal

Question 127

quantitative variables

Answer 127

coded with meaningful numbers

Question 128

ordinal scale

Answer 128

numerals represent a rank order

Question 129

interval scale

Answer 129

numerals represent equal intervals between levels with no "true zero"

Question 130

ratio scale

Answer 130

numerals have equal intervals & a "true zero"

Question 131

effect size

Answer 131

strength of relationship between 2+ variables

Question 132

parsimony

Answer 132

degree to which a scientific theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon