Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Anthropology
A
the study of humans: their culture, history, and evolution.
2
Q
Holistic perspective
A
gaining understanding through study of the whole rather than
individual parts. Think of the story of the blind men and the elephant; none of them
could understand what the elephant was from each separate part, but together they
could recognize it as an elephant
3
Q
Ethnocentrism
A
judging all other cultures based solely in comparison to your own,
which you believe to be the best, most correct culture
4
Q
Culture-bound
A
a perspective that produces theories about the world and reality that
are based on the assumptions and values from the researcher’s own culture
5
Q
Applied anthropology
A
the use of anthropology to study and solve real world problems
6
Q
Medical anthropology
A
specialized field of anthropology that brings applied and
theoretical approaches from anthropology to the study of human health and disease
7
Q
Cultural anthropology
A
the study of patterns in human behaviour, thought, and
emotions, focusing on humans as culture-producing and culture-reproducing creatures.
8
Q
Culture
A
a society’s shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions,
which are used to make sense of experience
9
Q
Ethnography
A
the in-depth study of a culture (observation, interviews, study).
10
Q
Fieldwork
A
when a scientist, after preparing and planning for years, goes out to do research and experiments in the field. This may be an archaeological dig, participant
observation, surveys, or any other study method.
11
Q
Participant observation
A
observing a person (or primate) as they go about their daily
life. Ethical issues: consent, outside influence, animal or human rights, interference,
correct notetaking
12
Q
Ethnology
A
comparison of ethnographic data, society and culture. Often contrasts different cultures with each other
13
Q
Linguistic anthropology
A
study of languages and their reflection or effect on human
culture, activities, and evolution. Can be ancient or modern.
14
Q
Archaeology
A
the study of cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data
15
Q
Bioarchaeology
A
the study of human remains – bones, skulls, teeth, hair, dried skin – to
determine the influences of culture and environment on human biological variation
16
Q
Cultural resource management
A
field where most of the archaeologists in Canada work,
consulting with businesses and private landowners who want to make sure they aren’t
disturbing artifacts, remains, or features.
17
Q
Physical anthropology
A
the study of human remains (ancestral remains)
18
Q
Molecular anthropology
A
study of genes and genetic relationships as well as their
contribution to human evolution, adaptation, and diversity
19
Q
Paleoanthropology
A
the study of ancient or early humans, including other extinct
species (homo erectus, homo neanderthalensis, etc)
20
Q
Biocultural approach
A
an approach that focuses on the interaction of biology and culture
21
Q
Primatology
A
study of primates (apes, prosimians, simians) as well as their relation to
modern humans and our evolution
22
Q
Forensic anthropology
A
study of human remains or artifacts to solve crimes or simply
answer questions about human remains. (Legal purposes)
23
Q
Empirical
A
factual data concerned with numbers, heights, dates, and measurable data.
24
Q
Hypothesis
A
an educated guess that is proven or disproven through testing and
experimentation.
25
Theory
once a hypothesis has been proven multiple times, a theory may be proposed
that explains the results of the experiments. It is a coherent statement.
26
Doctrine
a belief in a particular system or knowledge. A position that doesn’t allow for
other views or opinions, handed down by authority as the truth.
27
Culture shock
the feeling of alienation resulting from a move to a different culture. It
comes in waves of confusion, loneliness, and can be debilitating.
28
Globalization
the spread of new ideas, processes, cultures, and practices across the
world thanks to increased connectivity. Social media, big business, and global media
accelerates acculturation and can destroy traditional ways of life.
29
Primates
the group of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes,
and humans
30
Mammals
the class of vertebrates distinguished by bodies covered with hair or fur,
self-regulating temperature, and milk producing mammary glands
31
Mammal Traits
* Intelligence
▪ Generally higher cognitive abilities
▪ Emotional intelligence/map/relationships
* Young are born alive/not in eggs (some exceptions)
* Breast-fed
▪ Ability to feed offspring with milk from mammary glands
* Constant body temperature
* Diaphragm that controls breathing
* 4 chambered hearts
* Limbs are below body
▪ Economical and saves energy
* Flexible and hard joints
▪ Growth in youth, durability in age
* Simple skeleton (when compared to reptiles/birds)
* Special teeth for specific purposes
* Two sets of teeth (as compared to a shark or a reptile)
32
Species
the smallest working unit in biological classification. Reproductively isolated
populations or groups of populations capable of interbreeding
33
Genus
a group of like species (one above species)
34
Notochord
spine-like structure that supports the body of all embryonic and some
adult chordate creatures. (Species that have spines)
35
Taxonomy
the science of naming, defining, and classifying organisms based on shared
characteristics
36
Analogous
similar feature, similar function, different species (bird wing, bug wing)
37
Homologous
similar feature, different function (think a flipper or a wing)
38
Natural selection
evolutionary process where advantageous traits are “selected for”
whereas the disadvantageous ones are not. This means that individuals in possession of
the better traits live to reproduce while the rest do not (or to a lesser extent)
39
Law of segregation
variants of genes maintain their separate identities through the
generations (they don’t mix with each other like soups, they mix like granola)
40
Law of independent assortment
principle that genes controlling different traits are
inherited independently of each other (randomly)
41
Chromosome
the structure taken by DNA during cell division
42
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid, the recipe for all proteins created in the body. Is a double
helix ladder shape of alternating proteins, sugars, and phosphate.
43
Chromatid
one of the identical halves of a chromosome that split during cell division.
44
Alleles
an alternative form of a single gene (We inherit multiple copies of every gene
from our parents, so we have many different alleles that code for the same trait. A
dominant allele will override a recessive allele, so we might end up with red hair when
our parents are blond)
45
Gene
a length of DNA that codes for a particular protein
46
Enzymes
proteins that begin chemical reactions
47
Karyotype
the array of chromosomes found within a cell (every one of your cells contains YOUR karyotype.
48
Genome
the complete structure of all DNA for a species
49
Codon
a three-base sequence of a gene that specifies a particular amino acid for the
creation of a protein
50
RNA
ribonucleic acid, the single stranded molecule, like DNA, that transcribes and
transports instructions from DNA within the nucleus to the ribosomes, where it directs
protein synthesis. Contains uracil rather than thymine
51
Transcription
copying of a gene onto RNA within the nucleus. (Conversion of DNA
code to RNA code)
52
Ribosomes
cell structure where transcription occurs (little thingies that float around
the cytoplasm or are imbedded in the endoplasmic reticulum RER)
53
Translation
occurs in ribosomes. The codons of the RNA are translated into amino
acids, which then fold into proteins
54
Genetic code
the set of rules by which codons in genetic material specify amino acids in protein synthesis
55
Mitosis
asexual reproduction. Cell division produces daughter cells that are identical
(genetic copies) to the mother cell
56
Meiosis
sexual reproduction. A process that produces sex cells, each of which is half of
the number of chromosomes present in the other cells of the organism. One sex cell
from each parent is required for reproduction.
57
Homozygous
a chromosome pair that bears identical alleles for a single gene (both
chromosomes have the code for the same gene)
58
Heterozygous
a chromosome pair that has different alleles for a single gene (A+ blood
type vs B- blood type)
59
Genotype
the alleles an individual possesses for a particular trait
60
Dominant
in genetics, a term to describe the ability of an allele for a trait to mask the
presence of another allele
61
Recessive
in genetics, a term to describe an allele for a trait whose expression is
masked by the presence of a dominant allele
62
Phenotype
an individual’s observable characteristics. This can come from their
genetics or their environment
63
Hemoglobin
the protein that carries oxygen in human red blood cells
64
Polygenetic inheritance
two or more genes contributing to the phenotypic expression
of a single characteristic (genes work together to express different traits)
65
Population
a group of similar individuals that can and do interbreed
66
Gene pool
all the genetic variants possessed by members of a population
67
Evolution
the changes in allele frequencies in populations; also known as
microevolution (on the small scale)
68
Hardy-Weinburg principle
a principle stating that the genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors. When mating is random in a large population with no disruptive circumstances, the law predicts that both genotype and allele frequencies will remain constant because they are in equilibrium.
69
Mutation
the chance alteration of genetic material that produces new variations
70
Genetic drift
chance fluctuations of allele frequencies due to random events, like an
earthquake
71
Founder effects
kind of genetic drift that occurs when a population splits or is begun
by a small group of original organisms (think endogamy)
72
Gene flow
new alleles bring genetic variation into a population. In humans, this is
exogamy
73
Adaptation
series of beneficial adjustments to a particular environment
74
Reproductive success
the ability of an individual organism to reproduce and pass on its genes
75
Stabilizing selection
natural selection acting to promote stability rather than change in
a population's gene pool
76
Sickle-Cell anemia
an inherited form of anemia produced by a mutation in the
hemoglobin protein that causes the red blood cells to assume a sickle shape and block
blood vessels. When inherited from one parent, it provides a beneficial defence against
malaria. When inherited from both, it develops into sickle-cell anemia.
77
Clines
the gradual change in the frequency of an allele over space
78
Macroevolution
large scale evolution above the species level or leading to new species
79
Speciation
development of new species
80
Cladogenesis
speciation through a branching mechanism (one ancestral population
evolves into two or more descendant populations)
81
Anagenesis
a sustained directional shift in a population’s average characteristics that
leads to speciation (one ancestor very slowly evolves into another)
82
Punctuated equilibria
a model that suggests evolution occurs via long periods of
stability punctuated by periods of rapid change (environmental events/extinctions)
83
k-selected
reproduction involving the production of relatively few offspring with high
parental investment in each
84
r-selected
reproduction involving the production of many offspring with low parental
investment in each
85
Arboreal
lives primarily in trees
86
Nocturnal
awake during the night and is adapted as such
87
Diurnal
awake and adapted for daytime survival
88
Derived
characteristics appearing in a later species that did not occur in ancestral
populations (evolved later)
89
Ancestral
characteristics appearing in a later species that also appeared in ancestral
populations (evolved early, then stuck around)
90
Convergent evolution
a process by which unrelated populations evolve the same
characteristics due to similar function rather than ancestry (fish fins and webbed feet)
91
Grade
a general level of biological organization seen among a group of species: useful
for analyzing evolution
92
Clade
a taxonomic grouping that contains a single common ancestor and all its
descendants
93
Prosimians
the suborder of primates that includes lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers. They
are cat sized or smaller, and have moist, naked skin on their noses. They are mostly
nocturnal except for the lemurs of Madagascar.
94
Anthropoids
the suborder of primates that includes apes, New World monkeys, old
world monkeys, and humans
95
Strepsirrhines (turned up noses)
subdivision of primate order that includes lemurs
and lorises
96
Haplorrhines (simple nose)
the subdivision of the primate order that includes
monkeys, apes, and humans
97
Platyrrhines (flat-nosed)
the primate infraorder that includes the New World
monkeys
98
Catarrhines (drooping noses)
the primate infraorder that includes Old World monkeys,
apes, and humans
99
Hominoid
the taxonomic superfamily within the Old-World primates that includes
gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos, and humans.
100
Hominid
the African hominoid family that includes humans and their ancestors. Some
scientists also put other apes in this family, and further subdivide it to split between
them and humans.
101
Dental formula
the arrangement of different types of teeth in the mouth. The four
different types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars, are arranged in
specific ways and are used to differentiate between different primates. Humans and our
close ancestors have a 2-1-2-3 formula, whereas other primates have a 2-1-3-3 one.
102
Sexual dimorphism
the difference in size between males and females of the same
species. Related to body parts not directly used for reproduction
103
Binocular vision
vision with increased depth perception from two eyes set next to each
other with overlapping visual fields
104
Stereoscopic vision
complete 3D vision, or depth perception, from binocular vision
and nerve connections that run from each eye to both sides of the brain
105
Fovea centralis
small, central pit full of cones at the back of the eye. Allows for
accurate central vision in humans and other primates.
106
Vertebrates
animals with backbones
107
Cranium
the braincase of the skull
108
Foramen magnum
the opening at the base of the cranium that allows the spinal cord
to pass through
109
Clavicle
the collarbone connecting the sternum with the scapula
110
Suspensory hanging apparatus
the broad powerful shoulder joints and muscles found
in all the hominoids, allowing these large-bodied primates to hang suspended below the
tree branches
111
Scapula
shoulder blade
112
Brachiation
the ability to swing through trees by using the arms
113
Prehensile
having the ability to grasp
114
Opposable
having the ability to bring the thumb or big toe in contact with the tips of
the other digits on the same hand or foot (you can grab stuff)
115
Demographics
a population characteristic such as the number of individuals of each
age or sex
116
Ischial callosities
a hardened, nerveless pad on the buttocks that allows baboons and
other primates to sit for long periods of time
117
Community
in primatology, a primate social organization of fifty or more individuals
118
Natal group
the group or the community an animal inhabited since birth
119
Home range
the geographic area within which a group of primates moves
120
Dominance hierarchies
an observed ranking system in primate societies, ordering
individuals from high to low standing
121
Reconciliation
a friendly reunion between former opponents not long after a conflict
122
Grooming
the ritual cleaning of another animal’s coat to remove parasites
123
Estrus
in some primate females, the time of sexual receptivity during which ovulation
is visibly displayed
124
Ovulation
the moment when a released egg is receptive to fertilization
125
Monogamous
mating for life with a single individual of the opposite sex
126
Affiliative
behaving in a manner that promotes social cohesion
127
Altruism
concern for others expressed as increased risk undertaken for the good of
the group
128
Tool
an object used to facilitate a task or activity. Tools can be modified objects or
unmodified ones that have a particular use
129
Prehistory
a conventional term used to refer to the period before the appearance of
written records
130
Artifact
any object fashioned or altered by humans (that can be transported)
131
Material culture
the durable aspects of culture, such as tools, structures, and art
132
Ecofact
the natural remains of plants and animals
133
Feature
a nonportable element such as a hearth or ditch or an architectural element
(wall) that is preserved in the archaeological record
134
Fossil
the mineralized remains of past life forms
135
Taphonomy
the study of how bones and other materials come to be preserved as
fossils
136
Soil marks
a stain that shows up on the surface of recently ploughed fields revealing
an archaeological site
137
Middens (cultural shell deposits)
a refuse or garbage disposal area in an archaeological
site
138
Grid system
the way that an archaeological site is divided. A system for recording data
in three dimensions for an excavation
139
Datum point
an immovable point that is a reference for a grid system
140
Flotation
an archaeological technique employed to recover very tiny objects by
immersion of soil samples in water to separate heavy from light particles
141
Stratified
a term describing sites where the remains lie in layers, one upon another
142
Coprolites
fossilized poop
143
Endocast
cast of the inside of a skull; used to help determine the size and shape of the
brain
144
Polymerase chain reaction
a technique for amplifying or creating multiple copies of
fragments of DNA so it can be studied.
145
Relative dating
designating an object as being older or younger than another by noting
the position in the earth (Harris Matrix), by measuring the amounts of chemicals
contained in fossil bones and artifacts, or by identifying its association with another
plant, animal, or cultural remains (Pollen)
146
Absolute dating
dating materials in units of absolute time using scientific properties
such as rates of decay of radioactive elements (Carbon dating)
147
Stratigraphy
the most reliable means of dating; studying the position of artifacts in
strata (how deep it is, what is on top)
148
Fluorine dating
a technique for relative dating based on analysing the amount of
fluorine present in bones (the oldest bones contain the most fluorine)
149
Seriation
putting groups of objects into a sequence in relation to one another (These
bottles are more common in older sites, so they must be older)
150
Palynology
dating based on changes in pollen over time
151
Radiocarbon dating
chronometric dating based on measuring the amount of carbon14 left in organic materials. Good up to 50,000 years.
152
Dendrochronology
dating based on the number of growth rings found in tree trunks.
Must be based on local examples found in the climate
153
Potassium-argon dating
a technique that measures the ratio of radioactive potassium
to argon in volcanic debris associated with human remains. Only good for materials
preserved in ash, and is reliable up to 200,000 years
154
Continental drift
the movements of continents embedded in underlying plates on the
earth’s surface in relation to each other over the history of life on the planet
155
Molecular clock
dates of divergences among related species can be calculated through
an examination of the genetic mutations that have accrued since the divergence (How
much has an organism changed since their lineages split?)
156
Arboreal hypothesis
one of two hypotheses that seeks to explain why primates
evolved from mammals in the first place. The arboreal hypothesis posits that primate's
visual acuity and manual dexterity is due to their lives in trees. Any misjudgement of
distance or loss of strength could mean a deadly fall to the ground, so strength and
visual acuity were selected for.
157
Visual predation hypothesis
visual acuity and manual dexterity evolved in primates
were promoted through hunting for insects by sight. Also, their small size allowed them
freer access to insects, flowers and fruits that other, larger animals couldn’t reach
158
Bipedalism
primary locomotion on foot
159
Abduction
movement away from the midline, as ape toes away from their feet
160
Adduction
movement towards the midline, as human toes towards their feet
161
Ardipithecus
one of the earliest genera of bipeds, divided into two species: A. kadabba
(5.2 mya) and A. ramidus (4.4 mya)
162
Australopithecus
genus of several species of early bipeds from South Africa to East
Africa (1.1-4.3 mya) one of whom was directly ancestral to humans
163
Rifting
a geological process where a long narrow zone (fault) is created when two
plates separate
164
Savannah
semi-arid environment with scattered trees (between grassland and forest)
165
Diastema
a space between the canines and other teeth allowing the large, projecting
canines to fit inside the mouth
166
Kenyanthropus platyops
a proposed genus and species of biped different than
australopithecines but could be the same. Has a small braincase, large, flat face, and
small molars. However, it has been accused of being a badly made reconstruction
167
Gracile australopithecines
one member of the genus Australopithecus, (1-2 mya), with
a less developed chewing apparatus, no sagittal crest, probably ate more meat
168
Robust australopithecines
one member of the genus Australopithecus, (1-2 mya), with
a large jaw, well-developed chewing apparatus, sagittal crest (bony strip on head),
flaring cheek bones, and very large molars.
169
Sagittal crest
a crest running from the front to back on the top of the skull to provide a
surface of bone for the attachment of large chewing muscles
170
Law of competitive exclusion
when two closely related species compete of the same
niche, one will outcompete the other and bring about the other’s extinction
171
Australopithecus sediba
a recently identified species of gracile australopithecine
(1.97-1.98 mya) with derived homo-like characteristics in the hands and pelvis
