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MidTerm Flashcards

1
Q

Independent variables

A

What you change in order to test the hypothesis

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2
Q

Dependent variables

A

What you measure (data collected)

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3
Q

Controlled variable

A

Everything that stays the same

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4
Q

The difference between a controlled group and a controlled variable is?

A

Controlled variable: deliberately help constant
Controlled group: More so like a “comparison group”

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5
Q

Nonpolar covalent bonds

A

Two atoms of similar electronegativities/forms when two atoms share the same/similar electronegativities.

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6
Q

Polar covalent bonds

A

Two atoms of different electronegativities and share electrons unequally/forms when two atoms share electrons unequally.

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7
Q

Ionic bond

A

A cation (positively charged ion) and an anion (negatively charged ions)/forms from electron transfers.

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8
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

A special type of attraction between molecules, not a bond/forms when a hydrogen atom bonds to a highly electronegative atom and is attracted to another electronegative atom in a different molecule.

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9
Q

What is electronegativity

A

Electronegativity increases as you move right and up on the periodic table and is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.

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10
Q

Explain the relationship between electronegativity and covalent bonds.

A

The electronegativity difference between atoms in a covalent bond determines the bond’s polarity. A small or zero difference leads to a nonpolar covalent bond, while a large difference leads to polar covalent bonds.

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11
Q

Cohesion

A

Water molecules are held together by H bonds. Ex: water molecules on the stem of a plant.

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12
Q

Adhesion

A

Water sticks to other surfaces (By polarity or H bonds), can counteract gravity in plant vessels. Ex: water molecules sticking to a window after rainfall.

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13
Q

Thermal conductivity (physical property)

A

Rate which heat passes through a material. Ex: A pan heating up on a stove

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14
Q

High specific heat (physical property)

A

Heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a material by 1 degree C. Ex: water has a high specific heat

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15
Q

Buoyancy (physical property)

A

The upward force exerted by water on an object. Ex: Heavy ships floating in the middle of the ocean.

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16
Q

Viscosity (physical property)

A

Stickiness of a fluid which determines how easily substance can flow. Ex: Water has a low viscosity.

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17
Q

Carbohydrates

A

CHO - Monosaccharides - Glycosidic linkages - Major nutrients for cells, stores energy in their chemical bonds which is harvested by cellular respiration - Ex: glucose

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18
Q

Proteins

A

CHNOS - Polypeptides - Peptide bonds - Structural support, response, signaling, defense, movement, catalysis of reactions (enzymes), transport - Ex: eggs

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19
Q

Nucleic acids

A

CHNOP - Nucleotides - Phosphodiester bonds - Stores and transmits hereditary information - Ex: Thymine (T)

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20
Q

Lipids

A

CHO - Glycerol and fatty acids - Ester linkages - Move and store energy, absorb vitamins, make hormones - Ex: Olive oil

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21
Q

Explain the relationship between enzymes, substrate concentration, and product formation.

A

The rate of product formation increases with increasing substrate concentration until the enzyme becomes saturated.

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22
Q

Describe what would happen to the enzyme reaction rate as temperature increases from 0ºC to above that enzyme’s optimal range.

A

As the temperature increases from 0 degrees C, the enzymes’ rate of reaction will increase until it reaches it’s optimal temperature.

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23
Q

Describe what would happen to the enzyme reaction rate if pH is outside of that enzyme’s optimal range.

A

Above the optimal temperature, the enzyme will begin to denature which causes a decrease in the rate of reaction.

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24
Q

Mitochondria function

A

Converts food energy into “usable” energy for the cell through cellular respiration.

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25
Chloroplasts function
Converts sunlight energy into food energy.
26
Cell membrane function
Regulates what enters and leaves the cell.
27
Cell wall function
Protects/supports plant cells.
28
Nuclear membrane function
Regulates what moves in and out of the nucleus
29
Nucleus function
Contains the genetic information that runs/controls the cell.
30
Nucleolus function
Makes ribosomes
31
Golgi Apparatus function
Packages & ships proteins out of the cell.
32
Ribosome function
The site where proteins are made.
33
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) function
Makes phospholipids; detoxifies toxins; and stores Calcium in muscle cells.
34
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) function
Modifies proteins
35
Lysosome function
Contains enzymes that break down “old” organelles; break down engulfed bacteria (like the “janitor” of the cell).
36
Vacuole function
Stores materials needed by the cell.
37
Describe Light Microscope Technique
Passes visible light through a thin section of specimen and then through glass lenses.
38
Electron microscope
Uses electron beams which have shorter wavelengths of light.
39
Cryogenic Electron Microscope
A special freezing technique that freezes the cell, but prevents the water within the cell from crystalizing & destroying the cell.
40
Fluorescent Stains & Immunofluorescence (direct & indirect)
The light is absorbed by the sample & then re-emitted by the sample. Direct: Puts the sample in the fluorescent microscope & that area will glow (fluoresce) a specific color. Indirect: Add a 2nd antibody that is fluorescently labeled & then put the sample in the fluorescent microscope. This test is more sensitive since more of the fluorescent antibody can bind to the primary antibody.
41
Freeze fracture
freezes cells and cuts them open
42
cell fractionation
Disrupting cells to separate out cell organelles.
43
Centrifugation
Spinning mixtures of cells and their parts at very high speeds; separates the components.
44
Glycolysis
Cytoplasm - (start) Glucose, ADP, and NAD+ - (end) 2 pyruvates, NADH, 2 ATP
45
Krebs cycle
Mitochondria’s matrix - (start) 2 pyruvates - (end) 6CO2, FADH2, NADH, 2 ATP
46
Electron transport chain (ETC)
Mitochondria’s inner membrane - (start) Oxygen, FADH2, 34 ADP, and NADH - (end) water, 34 ATP, NAD+, FADH
47
Cellular respiration balanced equation:
6O2 + Glucose (C6H12O6) → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
48
Photosynthesis balanced equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight energy → Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2
49
State the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration.
oxygen
50
State the name of the metabolic pathway that occurs after glycolysis in the absence of oxygen.
fermentation
51
Light reactions
Chloroplast’s thylakoid membranes - Uses water and light energy to be converted to oxygen - (starts) Light energy, Water, ADP, NADP+ - (ends) Oxygen, NADPH, ATP
52
Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)
Chloroplast’s stroma - Uses CO2 to convert to glucose - (starts) CO2, ATP, NADPH - (ends) NADP+, ADP, glucose.
53
What does an energy pyramid show?
Shows the relative amounts of energy contained within each trophic level in an ecosystem.
54
Label the trophic levels on this energy pyramid. (A - D; A being the bottom)
A: Primary consumers, B: Secondary consumers, C: Tertiary consumers, D: Quaternary consumers.
55
If there was 1,200,000 kcal of energy on level “A,” how much energy would you find on level D?
1,200 kcals of energy.
56
What is the function of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
Cholesterol helps stabilize the membrane and it also helps regulate membrane permeability.
57
Why is the ratio of saturated:unsaturated fatty acid chains in the membrane important to living organisms?
This ratio is important to living organisms because it helps the membrane maintain fluidity and functionality, both of which are essential for the survival of living organisms.
58
How would this ratio be expected to be different in organisms that live in warm water compared to organisms that live in cold water?
Organisms in warmer water have a higher ratio and have stiffer membranes. Organisms in colder temperatures have more unsaturated fats and have fluider membranes.
59
Active transport
The movement of molecules across a membrane against its concentration gradient which requires energy (ATP).
60
Passive Transport
The movement of molecules across a membrane following its concentration gradient.
61
Diffusion
The passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
62
Osmosis
The passive movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from hypotonic solutions to hypertonic solutions.
63
Facilitated Diffusion
The passive movement of molecules across a cell membrane with the assistance of helper proteins.
63
Exocytosis
The process by which cells release substances from the cell using vesicles.
64
Endocytosis
The process by which cells absorb substances from the outside using vesicles (Clathrin).
65
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis where cells engulf large particles or other cells.
66
List 6 functions of membrane proteins
Transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM).
67
Primary protein structure
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
68
Secondary protein structure
Folded structures that form within a polypeptide due to interactions between atoms of the backbone
69
Tertiary protein structure
The overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide. The tertiary structure is primarily due to interactions between the R groups of the amino acids that make up the protein
70
Quaternary protein structure
Made up of multiple polypeptide chains, also known as subunits. When these subunits come together, they give the protein its quaternary structure
71
Hydrolysis
breaks the bonds of polymers by the addition of water.
72
dehydration synthesis
Monomers are built up into a polymer through the process of dehydration synthesis.
73
competitive vs noncompetitive inhibition
competitive is in the active site, noncompetitive is in the allosteric site
74
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles (such as the nucleus and mitochondria), while prokaryotic cells do not. DNA in eukaryotic cells is found inside the nucleus, while DNA in prokaryotic cells is located in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
75
Plant cells and Animal cells
Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes (discussed under the cytoskeleton), and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plastids used for storage, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
76
Why is water a good solvent?
it is a polar molecule, which means it can interact with/dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds.
77
surface tension
Surface tension is the property of a liquid’s surface that allows it to resist external force due to cohesive forces between molecules, minimizing surface area.
78
explain the process of end-product inhibition
The process of end-product inhibition is when the final product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme from earlier in the pathway, usually the first. This helps prevent the overproduction of the end product and conserves resources.

bio (10 decks)

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