Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What is Foreign Policy?
A
- The strategy or approach chosen by the national government to achieve its goals in its relations with external entities.
- This includes decisions to do nothing
2
Q
What are elements of State Sovereignty?
A
- Territorial Integrity
- Political independence
- Sovereign equality
3
Q
What is Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA)?
A
- the subfield of international relations that seeks to explain foreign policy or foreign policy behaviour with reference to the theoretical ground of human decision makers, acting singly and in groups
4
Q
What are the Hallmarks of FPA?
A
Commitments to
- Look below the nation0state level to actor-specific information
- Build action-specific theory as middle ground between actor general theory and the complexity of the real world
- Pursue multi-causal and multi-level explanations
- Leverage theory and findings across the spectrum of social science
- View the process of foreign policy decision making as being just as important as FP outputs
5
Q
What are the goals of FPA?
A
- Building a ‘universal’ theory of foreign policy
- Building actor-specific, mid range theory
- Providing sound advice to policymakers based on rigorous research
6
Q
What are Rosenau’s Five Factors?
A
- International System
- Societal Environment
- Government setting
- Bureaucratic roles of policymakers
- Individual Characteristics of FP elites
7
Q
What are Methodological Challenges and Policy Relevance of FPA?
A
- Security concerns and political sensitivities limit access to data
- Hard to observe and analyze process from the outside
- Delays in accessing necessary information
- Timeliness and originality
8
Q
What are the Core Assumptions of Political Realism ?
A
- International system is anarchic
- Sovereign states are the main actors
- States are unitary rational actors, pursuing their own interests
- The state’s primary goals are national security and state survival
- National power and capabilities are key determinants of relations between states
9
Q
What are the 6 Principles of Political Realism?
A
- Objective laws rooted in human nature
- Interest defined in terms of power
- Interest in power is objective and universal but not fixed
- Aware of the moral significance of political action
- The moral aspirations of a single state should not be equated with universal moral laws
- Autonomy of the political sphere
10
Q
What is Neo-Realism (structural realism)?
A
- Kenneth Waltz
- Shares a focus on rational, self-interest, utility-maximizing states
- Power politics in a self-help system
- Objective laws, but they are not rooted in human nature
- More focus on system- level factors and patterns of behaviour under anarchy
11
Q
What is liberalism in a historical perspective?
A
- Importance of individual rights and freedoms
- Institutions (both domestic and international) as key mechanisms for upholding rights and freedoms
- Possibility of mutually beneficial cooperation
- Democratization and liberalization foster a ‘zone of peace’
12
Q
What is the legacy of liberalism in foreign policy?
A
- Peace among liberals
- Imprudent vehemence
- Complaisance towards threat
13
Q
What is the democratic peace theory?
A
- Immanuel Kant
- Representative republican government ensures accountability; wars require public support
- Principled commitment to respect legally institutionalized rights; international law
- Social and economic interdependence; material incentives for cooperation
14
Q
What are Neo-liberal institutionalism’s core assumptions?
A
- Keohance and Keohance and Nye
- The international system is anarchic
- Sovereign states are the main actors
- States are unitary rational actors, pursuing their own interests, but domestic characteristics also shape state behaviour
- The state’s goals extend beyond national security and state survival
- Absolute gains and positive sum games
15
Q
What is Constructivism?
A
- The material world shapes and is shaped by human actions and interaction depends on dynamic normative and epistemic interpretations of the material world
- Concerned with the role of ideas in constructing social life but it is not pure idealism
16
Q
What are assumptions and Key insights of Constructivism?
A
- Agents and interests are not a priority
- Role of agents and structures and potential for change; social construction is continuous, ongoing process
- Centrality of norms, culture, and identity; role of intersubjective knowledge
- Logic of appropriateness vs. logic of consequences
- Key concepts and insights borrowed from other fields
17
Q
Constructivism and foreign policy
A
- Units of analysis (states) and their interests are socially constructed; they should not be taken for granted
- Norms, culture, and identity shape foreign policy decision making
- Decisions based on a “logic of appropriateness” vs. “logic of consequnces”
- Concepts bounded by rationality
18
Q
What are critiques of constructivism?
A
- it is an empty vessel that does not specify the actors or issues of interest in IP
- does not offer solutions to specific problems; does not offer clear policy prescriptions
19
Q
“Konstrucktpolitik”
A
- Houghton
- Actors are critical; potential to reshape the system
- Argument and language matter a lot
- If you can’t change the physical, change the social
- Don’t assume rationality or logic of consequence
- Encourage/discourage self-fulfilling beliefs
20
Q
Anarchy vs. Hierarchy in World Politics
A
- Realism and liberalism start from the premise that the international system is anarchic, they assume that sovereign states are mostly alike
- Both Marxist and post/decolonial theories emphasize hierarchical dimension of the international system
- Slides
21
Q
What are the core elements of state sovereignty?
A
- Equality
- Territorial integrity
- Political independence ( interfering from outside)
22
Q
What is the effect of colonization on State sovereignty?
A
- Western states still occupy privileged political influence
- Many diverse languages and cultures and the borders do not match up
- Makes it hard to create a sense of national identity
23
Q
What is capitalism defined as?
A
- Private ownership of the means of production
- Wage labour as a commodity
- The role of the state as an instrument of class power
24
Q
What is Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism?
A
- The highest stage of capitalism
- Advanced capitalist states exploit citizens and resources
- Exploited citizens and nations are not able to achieve ability because of this exploitation
- Once domestic market is saturated the push will expand for new materials
25
What are the world systems and dependency theory?
- Immanuel Wallerstein
- Pushback on modernization theory
- States are not equal due to the international system
- privileged western states extract resources from states in the periphery and semi-periphery
- We need to be looking at the world system as a whole
26
What is modernization theory?
- Stressed the idea that states moved through predictable states of development
- Must follow the right steps and will eventually develop
27
What was the IMF "Structural Adjustment Policies"?
- conditions for loans forcing free market policies or take down trade barriers
- Countries suffered economically as a result
- western countries benefitted
- Example of dependency theory
28
What are the post- and decolonial theories of IR?
- Empire and colonization as key explanatory factors in international politics
- Structures of power that influence other types of power
- Inherent violence of colonization; Western countries rooted in domination and exploitation of people and resources from around the world
- Racism and dehumanization
29
What is common but differentiated responsibility?
All countries are responsible but they are not equally responsible
- Haven't cause the same amount of harm
- Capacity to act
Formalized in 1992 in Rio Earth Summit
30
What is the West and Central African CFA France?
- Both have a fixed exchange rate that is peg by the Euro
- France was underpinning the currency of countries despite independence
- Restricting sovereignty of African states
31
How to Conceptualize power?
- Hard power
- Soft power
- Structural
32
What is Hard power?
- Military
- Economic
- Associated with threats, coercion, and compulsion
- Examples: coercive diplomacy, economic sanctions, formation of military alliances
33
What is Soft Power?
- Not all relationships are captured by hard power
- the ability to obtain preferred outcomes by attraction rather than coercion or payment
34
What is structural power?
- Ability to shape and determine structures of the global system
- Includes global norms, rule institutions
- Example: influencing the development of international law or trade rules
35
How are knowledge and power linked?
- Capacity to shape decision
- Specialized knowledge and expertise as source of authority especially on technical matters
- Language as filter for knowledge about the world
36
How is feminism seen in Canada?
- Sees a more neoliberal version of feminism
- Focused on poverty reductions
- Empowers women on the individual level
37
How is feminism seen in Sweden?
- Focus on gender equality as an end to itself
- Focused on emancipation of women and structures
38
Knowledge, Power, and Ethics in FPA
- they are central in the study of foreign policy
- they shape the questions we ask
39
What is democracy?
- it is a form of government based on rule by the peoples
- Popular sovereignty as a defining characteristic
- Premised on individual liberty and equality
- Not synonymous with liberal democracies
40
What is democracy according to Dahl?
- Democracy is an ideal that states will strive for
- Best approximated when seven conditions are met
1. Elected Officials
2. Free and Fair elections
3. Inclusive suffrage
4. Right to run for office
5. Freedom of expression
6. Alternative information
7. Association autonomy
41
Does Regime type Matter?
- Ir scholars disagree about whether regime type determines foreign policy behaviour
- Realist downplay significance of regime type; all states pursue power
- Liberals believe regime type shapes foreign policy via institutions, norms, and values
- Critical theorists wary of claims about democracies as proponents of 'value-based' foreign policies
42
What is the foreign policy behaviour of democracies?
- they will prefer diplomacy and multilateralism
- propensity for economic interdependence
- Constraints on war initiation
- Concern with human rights
43
What is Francis Fukuyama and the "End of History"?
- End of the cold war
- This is the triumph of liberal democracy
- Everybody's going to buy in
- The end point of ideological history
- There were quite a few people bought into it
44
What is Democratic Peace Theory?
Democracies do not go to war with each other
45
What are the explanations for democratic peace theory?
- Institution constraints (checks and balances)
- Normative constraints (more likely to buy into peace keeping)
- Economic interdependence (mutually damaging)
46
What are the three variants of DPT?
- Monadic: democracies are generally more peaceful
- Dyadic: focusing on relationship as pairs and between democracies
- Systemic: more democratic states in the system will make the system more peaceful
47
What are the foreign policy behaviours of non-democracies?
- more centralized decision-making; leaders face fewer constraints
- greater use of coercion and military force
- less transparency in decision making, less public accountability
- tendency to form personalist alliances
48
What are hybrid regimes?
- A lot of states fall somewhere in the middle, they have elements of both
49
What does identity refer to?
the individual and collective sense of self
50
What does identity refer to in Foreign Policy?
- the varying constructions of nation and statehood
- nations are "imagined communities" inherently limited and sovereign
- norms are "collective expectation for the proper behaviour of actors with a given identity"
51
What does culture refer to?
- shared values, beliefs, traditions, and practices of a society
52
What does culture refer to in foreign policy?
- the collective models of nation-state authority or identity carried by custom or law
- strategic culture links national identity with foreign policy behaviour
53
What is strategic culture?
- the distinctive, dominant and persistent system of ideas and practices about foreign policy held by a sociopolitical community
- provides meaning and hierarchy to national values
54
What is Samuel Huntington's post- Cold War "class of civilizations" thesis ?
- the cold war had just ended, we are at the end of history arguments
- Says instead of ideological conflict we are going to see cultural conflict
- divides the world up into 9 civilizations
55
How is culture related to soft power?
- Culture and political values as core elements of soft power
- Important of cultural diplomacy and identity projection
- Influence via attraction and emulation
- Culture and identity as sources of power and influence
56
How does constructivism view culture and identity?
- key explanatory factors in foreign policy decision making
- interplay between domestic factors and international environment
- social constructs that change over time
- culture and identity can supplement or serve as alternative to material explanations
57
Common threat
- a common threat can reinforce or shape a common identity; it through the recognition of a shared threat that actors acknowledge that they share not only interests but also values and beliefs
58
What are security communities?
- a sense of shared identity can foster cooperation and diffuse conflict
- states within a pluralistic security community possess a compatibility of core values derived from common institutions and mutual responsiveness
- "we-ness'
59
What does Stairs argue that Canadian Foreign policy reflects national commitments to?
- a pluralistic conceptions of politics: respect for diversity
- pragmatism and moderation
- Compromise and the 'limit of the possible'
- Concern with process and orderly brokering of interests
60
What does bureaucracy refers to in foreign policy?
- the administrative machinery of the state
- Political leaders set the overall direction. but bureaucracies help formulate and implement foreign policy
61
What are the core characteristics of Bureaucracy
- hierarchy
- continuity
- impersonality
- expertise
62
What are the dilemmas related to bureaucracy
- Dilemmas related to autonomy vs. accountability
- Debates about how much freedom and independence should have to make own decision or how much they should be under government control
- Dilemmas related to rule following vs improvisation
- you do not always have rule that suited to a particular situation
63
Hierarchy
- officials must answer to superiors in a defined sphere of competence
64
Continuity
- permanent staff, full time work with prospects of regular advancement
- Bureaucracy provides established way of doing thing
65
Impersonality
work according to prescribed rules that eliminate arbitrary and politicized influence
66
Expertise
- officials with specialized training, selected on merit, control access to knowledge
- providing advice to the government of the day
67
In what ways do bureaucracies influence foreign policy?
1. Institution interests and path dependence
2. Standard operating procedures
3. Competing Bureaucratic interest
68
Standard Operatings Procedures
- Bureaucratic commitment to rule-following
- Established habits, routines, and procedures shape decision making
- May preclude compromise, limit the range of options
68
Institutional Interests and Path Dependence
- making one decision and going down a path, it makes it very difficult to change
- Preference for policies that promote bureaucratic control of more topics and issues
69
Impact on decision making of Social interactions within small groups
- intergroup cohesion
- leadership structure
- external pressures
69
Bureaucracies influence on policy implementation
- debates about which policy tools to use
- bureaucracies as guardians of data and information
- bureaucracies as sources of specialized knowledge and expertise
70
Competing Interests and Turf Wars
- Bureaucratic politics and models stress the impact of bureaucratic role, position, and organizational mission
- Actors; policy and positions largely determined by their position within government; 'where you stand depends on where you sit'
- Different departments and agencies seek to advance conflicting interest, maximize power in relation to other bureaucratic interest
70
Implementation Challenges
- coordination failures across departments and agencies
- overlapping jurisdictions and efficiencies
- disagreements about ownership and authority in policy implementation
70
International Bureaucracies
- international organizations play a significant role in global policymaking
- composed of large bureaucracies that share similar characteristics
- Similar dynamics (e.g. path dependence)
- International bureaucracies as autonomous actors that can shape state foreign policy behaviour
71
What is Groupthink?
- a pathology that leads to deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement that results from in-group pressures
- a conceptual model of political decision-making to explain why intelligent, experienced individuals sometimes produce defective policies in group environments
72
What are symptoms of Groupthink?
Janis
1. Illusion of invulnerability; excessive optimism
2. Collective rationalization
3. Belief in the group's inherent morality; ignore ethical consequences
4. Stereotyping of enemies
5. Direct pressure on dissenters (horizontal or vertical
6. Self-censorship: internalizing views held by the group
7. Illusion of unanimity (e.g. misinterpret silence)
8. Emergence of self-appointed 'mind-guard'
73
Impact of Groupthink
- failures to survey objectives, alternatives, and risks
- lead to poor information gathering
- poor information processing
- lack of contingency planning
74
Factors Conductive to Groupthink
○ Cohesiveness
○ Homogeneity (e.g. professional experience)
○ Insulation and close-mindedness
○ Inter-group tensions (i.e. with other groups)
○ High stress
○ Recent failure
- Promotional leadership (leaders promote own ideas)
75
Prospect Theory
- A descriptive theory of decision making under risk
- includes two faces
- framing and evaluation
75
Framing Effects
- Information is received and processed such that particular aspects of a problem are emphasized
- determining whether a problem take place in the realm of gains or losses
- Gains or losses judged based on reference point
76
Risk Assessments
- decision makers tend to be risk-averse in the domain of gains
- decision makers are risk-seekers in the domain of losses
77
Role Theory
- first emerged in the field of FPA in 1970s
- decision makers' conception of their state's role on the world stage influenced foreign policy behaviour
- roles could be 'allies' or 'non-aligned'
- focus on a wider array of states, including small states, not just great powers
- roles may be contested and/or contradictory
78
Role theory and Foreign policy
- National Role conception; self-defined perception of a state's role vis-a-vis other states
- role performance; includes attitudes, decisions, and actions. taken to implement a national role conception initiating negotiations among rival states
- role prescriptions emanating from the external environment; outline what role is appropriate and what it requires
79
Structure vs. Agency in FPA
- Agency: capacity to influence environment
- Structure: the overall context for action
- material conditions that define the range of options available
80
First, Second, and Third-Image Theory
- Kenneth Waltz
- Different levels of analysis to explain war
- First Image: Individuals
- Second Image: Domestic characteristics of states
- Third Image: International System
81
Individual Factors to Consider in FPA
- personality and leadership style
- psychological factors
- Ascriptive charavteristics
- socialization & past experiences
82
Personality and Leadership Style
- promotional leadership vs. openness to advice
- degree of risk-aversion
- willingness to compromise
- active/passive
- positive/negative
- critics argue that personality is too "elusive" to measure
83
Psychological Factors
- argues that a variety of psychological factors can lead to misperception among decision makers
- confirmation bias
- availability heuristics
- cognitive dissonance
- perception of centralization/intent
84
What is a Case Study?
- a well-defined aspect of a historical episode that the investigator selects for analysis
- In FPA, case study examines a specific action, reaction, or a case inaction
85
What is a Case?
- a case is an instance of a class of events
- a class of events could be a foreign policy outcome, type of behaviour, change in attitude
86
Advantages of Case Studies
- allow for deep contextual understanding of particular outcomes or types of outcomes
- exploring causal mechanisms
- assessing complex causal relationships
- deriving new hypotheses, alternative explanations for observed phenomena
87
Types of Case Studies
- descriptive
- explanatory
- comparative
- theory testing
- theory building
88
Descriptive
- provide a detailed account of foreign policy event or outcome
89
explanatory
- seek to explain why a particular decision was made
90
Comparative
- compare two or more cases to identify patterns
91
Theory-testing
- case to test existing theory
92
Theory building
- draw on specific foreign policy outcomes/events to develop new theories
93
Case Studies: Step by Step
1) Selecting a case
2) Defining the research question
3) Gathering data
4) Analyzing decision making
5) Applying theoretical frameworks
6) Drawing Conclusions
94
Defining the Research Question
- narrowing the scope of a research question
- key terms should be clearly identified and defined
- absence of clear definitions make it difficult to show the research question has been answered
- researcher discretion; no such thing as the perfect definition
95
Gathering Data
- primary sources include government documents and policy statements, transcripts and audio recording, images of historical events
- secondary sources include scholarly research, documents and reports from think tanks
- avoid over-reliance on a single source or type of source
- acknowledge limitations and data gaps
96
Analyzing Decision Making
- review data from multiple sources systematically to explain why a particular foreign policy outcome occurred
- includes officials and unofficial statements, decision making process, who was involved, socio-historical context
- focus on causal mechanism and "causal chains" that link key variables to outcomes
- focus on temporal sequencing
97
Process Tracing
- a method that attempts to identify the intervening causal process between an independent variable and the outcome of the dependent variable
98
Applying Theoretical Frameworks
- explanatory case studies move beyond description by leveraging theoretical insights to explain foreign policy outcomes
- importance of identifying rival theories that might account for a particular outcome
- be selective about the number of theories under consideration
99
What is a Theory?
- a way of condensing knowledge
- there is a relationship between concepts
- a theory states how those concepts are related
100
Observable implications
- all theories should have observable implications
- theories should also be falsifiable; it should also be clear what type of evidence would suggest a theory is incorrect
101
Multi-causal Explanations in FPA
- multi-causal explanations are common in foreign policy analysis
- few foreign policy outcomes can be explained by one factor alone
- importance of identifying which factors are likely to be most important
102
Multi level explanations
- multilevel explanations also a hallmark of foreign policy analysis
- consider the international level, state and individual level
- factors at one level can interact with and influence other levels, creating complex webs of causation
- considering how variables at different levels interact provides a more nuanced account of foreign policy outcomes
103
Drawing Conclusions
- address question about generalizability; be clear about how far your conclusions might travel
- importance of specifying scope conditions
- most FPA aims at mid-range theory that applies beyond a single vase but stops short of 'universal theorizing"
104
Pacifism and Japanese Foreign Policy
- the "peace clause" of the Japanese constitution formally renounces war
- "Article 9: The Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation"
105
Yoshida Doctrine
- the Yoshida Doctrine emerged in 1950s and has shaped Japanese foreign policy in the 21st Century
- close ties with the United States; reliance on US security guarantees via the 1951 Mutual Security Treaty
- String focus on economic growth; prioritizing post war economic recover over military buildup
- Japanese Self-Defense Forces established in 1954; emphasis on self-defence and civilian control
106
Lesson Learned from Japan's Military Defeat
- Institutional and legal constraints as a response to Japan's defeat in World War II
- More than 2.5 Japanese killed
- Cities and industrial capacity largely destroyed
- First time being defeated by a foreign power
- US led Allied occupation from 1945 until 1952
- Transition to constitutional democracy
107
Limitations of Institutional Explanations
- Americans primarily responsible for drafting the 1947 constitution
- Theres prevalence of ethnocentric nationalism
- strong group loyalty and decentralized decision-making fosters mutual accommodation among leading institutions
- Relative absence of war guilt
- Rules are open to interpretation
108
Constructivist Explanation
- Japanese national identity; Japan as a democracy as a "peace nation"
- Strong national culture of anti-militarism; visible public opinion and opposition to changes in Japanese defense policy
- Norms against militarism shape the policy making process
- Relatively weak regional security institutions
109
Pacifist Policy Making
- reflects the deep suspicion with which much of the Japanese political system views the Self Defence forces
- The Kaifu government deliberately excluded Dense Agency personnel from reporting directly to the cabinet
- Few Nations in the world would exclude the advice of their military experts from the councils of governments at the time of a national security crisis
110
Anti-militarism and Strategic Culture
- strong culture of anti-militarism creates significant constraints for policy-makers
- Heavy reliance on US security guarantees, including American nuclear "umbrella"
- Structure of Japan Self-Defense forces designed to complement US capabilities
- culture can change, though it tends to be incremental
- Depends on contiunance of security cooperation with the US
111
Realist Explanations and Japanese Foreign policy
- Lind argues that scholars underestimate Japan's military capabilities
- GDP per capita is misleading statistic
- Better to look at capabilities and total defence spending
- Japan's total defence expenditures are significant
112
Offensive vs. Defensive Realism in Japan
- realist are united by a focus on anarchy and its effects on state behaviour
- offensive realism suggest that great powers will see regional hegemony
- Defensive realism suggest that states must vigilant but expansionism is usually counter-productive, defense easier than offense
113
Realist Foreign Policy Strategies
- Conquest: offensive strategy aimed at expansion and regional hegemony
- Band wagoning: offensive strategy in which a state
- Balancing: defensive strategy in which states focus more on balancing the influence on each other
- Buck-passing: defensive strategy in which a state has a powerful ally and try to outside much of their security that they can
114
Contemporary Burden Sharing Debates
- International Peace Cooperation Act (1992) allowed for overseas deployments in UN peace operations and for humanitarian missions
- 2012 National Security Strategy; "proactive contribution to peace"
- Legislation passed in 2015 to allow for "collective self-defence" operations
115
What is Neoconservatism?
- Ideological orientation that selectively combines elements of both realist and liberal thought
- Implication for both domestic and foreign policy
- Origins in the 1970s; response to US failure in Vietnam and protests
- Strategic spread and promotion of these ideas through 1980s and 1990s
116
Core Tenets of Neoconservatism
- Moral clarity and certainty about American role in the world; good vs. evil
- US should maintain military pre-eminence; 'benevolent' US hegemony
- US should be willing to leverage military power and use force in its foreign policy
- Deep skepticism about international law and multilateral institutions
117
The One percent Doctrine
- Probability estimate that guides foreign policy actions
- Even if there is only 1% chance of a grave threat materializing, it must be treated as a "certainty"
118
The Bush Doctrine
- Collection of principles and rationales guiding US foreign policy:
○ Unilateralism; willingness to act without UN approval
○ Pre-emptive use of force; US right to secure itself before an attack occurs
- Regime changes; spreading freedom and democracy by removing autocrats
119
What is Populism?
- A 'thin' ideology that separates society into two "homogeneous and antagonistic" groups; the "pure people" vs. the "corrupt elite"
- Argues that politics should be an expression of the general will, i.e. the will of the people
- Typically paired with a 'host' ideology, yielding right-wing or left-wing variants of populism
The people vs the elites
120
Authoritarian populism has implications for FP:
1. Politics: centralizing and personalizing foreign policy
i. The process for which FP can happen can change
2. Policies: emphasize national sovereignty
i. Reasserting national sovereignty
3. Polities: contesting international institutions and the liberal international order
121
Centralization and Personalization
- Under authoritarian populist governments you see
○ Skeptical of foreign policy elites, especially diplomats
○ Work to marginalize expert advisors
○ Decisionism § Leader centric decision making
§ Ignoring the normal procedure
○ Foster cult of leadership with global audiences
- Dispense with political procedures and deliberations; leader-centric meetings
121
Emphasizing National Sovereignty
- Emphasis on sovereignty; less willing to negotiate or compromise
- Co-existence of pragmatic policy with rhetorical confrontation
- Reject internal or external limitations of popular sovereignty (e.g. human rights law)
- Tendency to reject historical responsibilities
Not going to accept that we are bound by an agreement
122
Contesting the Liberal International Order
- Vocal opposition to multilateralism and international institutions
- Global governance as a target of politicization and mobilization
- Pushback against international bureaucracies and transnational elites
Create 'alternative' institutions and orders
