Midterm

Question 1

What is top-down processing?

Answer 1

Perception starts with interpretation of sensory information based on prior experience and knowledge (expectancies).

Question 2

What is bottom-up processing?

Answer 2

Perception starts with raw input from our senses and builds up to higher-level understanding.

Question 3

What are Gestalt Principles?

Answer 3

Psychological principles explaining how we perceive patterns and objects as unified wholes.

Question 4

Define the Gestalt principle of proximity.

Answer 4

Objects close together are grouped together.

Question 5

Define the Gestalt principle of similarity.

Answer 5

Similar objects are perceived as part of a group.

Question 6

Define the Gestalt principle of continuity.

Answer 6

Tendency to perceive a series of points or a broken line as having unity.

Question 7

Define the Gestalt principle of closure.

Answer 7

Our minds fill in gaps to perceive a complete image.

Question 8

Define the Gestalt principle of orientation.

Answer 8

We perceive objects aligned in the same direction as a group.

Question 9

Define the Gestalt principle of simplicity.

Answer 9

We perceive the simplest possible structure.

Question 10

What is inattentional blindness?

Answer 10

Observers often fail to report the presence of unexpected items when attending to a particular object or event.

Question 11

What is change blindness?

Answer 11

People are poor at noticing large changes when these occur simultaneously with a visual disruption.

Question 12

What is selective attention?

Answer 12

Ability to select a particular input for conscious processing.

Question 13

What does SEEV stand for?

Answer 13

Salience, Effort, Expectancy, Value.

Question 14

What is salience in the context of SEEV?

Answer 14

The extent to which an event stands out.

Question 15

What is effort in the context of SEEV?

Answer 15

Cost of moving attention from one area to another.

Question 16

What does expectancy refer to in SEEV?

Answer 16

The likelihood of seeing an event at an area.

Question 17

What is value in the context of SEEV?

Answer 17

Importance of attending to an event at an area.

Question 18

Define foveal vision.

Answer 18

Visual focus covering 2 degrees of visual angle.

Question 19

What are saccadic eye movements?

Answer 19

Rapid jumps between stationary objects.

Question 20

What is dwell time?

Answer 20

The total time spent on or attending to an area, object, or resource.

Question 21

What is divided attention?

Answer 21

Ability to attend to several inputs in parallel.

Question 22

What is the Multiple Resource Theory?

Answer 22

Tasks using different resources interfere less than tasks using the same resources.

Question 23

What is focused attention?

Answer 23

Ability to suppress unwanted sources of input.

Question 24

What is the difference between mistakes, slips, and lapses?

Answer 24

Mistakes are errors of commission; slips are incorrect executions; lapses are forgotten actions.

Question 25

Define Rasmussen's SRK framework.

Answer 25

A framework categorizing errors into skill-based, rule-based, and knowledge-based.

Question 26

What is a skill-based error?

Answer 26

Routine actions; highly automated behavior.

Question 27

What is a rule-based error?

Answer 27

Solving familiar problems by applying known rules or procedures.

Question 28

What is a knowledge-based error?

Answer 28

Novel situations requiring on-line planning and problem-solving.

Question 29

What is feedback control?

Answer 29

A control process that adjusts the input or process based on the output comparison.

Question 30

What is feedforward control?

Answer 30

A control process used before operations begin to ensure planned activities are carried out properly.

Question 31

What is the Proximity-Compatibility Principle?

Answer 31

The principle stating that display proximity should match processing proximity for efficient task performance.

Question 32

Define the term 'error recovery.'

Answer 32

Steps taken to overcome an error, which can be generic or planned.

Question 33

What is error management?

Answer 33

The process of detecting, explaining, and recovering from errors.

Question 34

What is feedforward control?

Answer 34

The control process used before operations begin, including policies, procedures, and rules designed to ensure that planned activities are carried out properly. ## Footnote Feedforward control is anticipatory in nature.

Question 35

What does feedback control involve?

Answer 35

In feedback closed-loop control systems, the control loop compares the output of the process to the desired output and adjusts the input or process accordingly. ## Footnote Feedback control is reactive.

Question 36

What factors influence the balance between feedback and feedforward control in an organization?

Answer 36

* Stage in organization’s life history * Type of work or activities * Number of exceptional cases * Nature of search for problem solutions * Individual’s position within hierarchy * Amount of training ## Footnote Each factor affects how much reliance is placed on feedback versus feedforward mechanisms.

Question 37

How does power distance affect organizational behavior?

Answer 37

Extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. ## Footnote High power distance cultures are less willing to challenge authority.

Question 38

Which countries are considered to have high power distance?

Answer 38

* Malaysia * Mexico * Arab countries * Indonesia * India * Singapore ## Footnote These cultures typically accept hierarchical order without much question.

Question 39

What is uncertainty avoidance?

Answer 39

Extent to which a culture programs its members to feel comfortable or uncomfortable with unstructured situations. ## Footnote High uncertainty avoidance cultures resist change and control emotions.

Question 40

Which countries are examples of high uncertainty avoidance?

Answer 40

* Greece * Portugal * Japan ## Footnote These cultures exhibit a strong need for rules and structure.

Question 41

Define individualism vs. collectivism.

Answer 41

Degree to which individuals are supposed to look after themselves or remain integrated into groups, usually around the family. ## Footnote Low individualism cultures prioritize group harmony over individual success.

Question 42

Which countries exemplify high individualism?

Answer 42

* USA * Australia * UK ## Footnote In these cultures, individuals are expected to take care of themselves.

Question 43

What does masculinity vs. femininity refer to in cultural dimensions?

Answer 43

Masculinity represents a preference for achievement and material rewards, while femininity represents a preference for cooperation and quality of life. ## Footnote This dimension was previously termed 'Goal Orientation'.

Question 44

What is the significance of long-term vs. short-term orientation?

Answer 44

Extent to which a culture programs its members to accept delayed gratification of their material, social, and emotional needs. ## Footnote High long-term orientation cultures value persistence and future planning.

Question 45

Which countries have the highest long-term orientation?

Answer 45

* China * Japan * South Korea ## Footnote These cultures prioritize long-term planning over immediate results.

Question 46

What is the Swiss Cheese Model in accident models?

Answer 46

Layers of successive barriers/defenses; gaps in these barriers can result from active/latent errors and violations, leading to accidents when all barriers are penetrated. ## Footnote This model emphasizes the importance of multiple safety layers.

Question 47

What is the purpose of the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)?

Answer 47

Collects, analyzes, and responds to voluntarily submitted aviation safety incident reports to lessen the likelihood of aviation accidents. ## Footnote ASRS aims to identify deficiencies in the National Aviation System.

Question 48

Define resilience in the context of organizational safety.

Answer 48

Capacity to cope with unanticipated dangers after they have become manifest, learning to bounce back. ## Footnote Resilience is crucial for High-Reliability Organizations (HROs).

Question 49

What are the four cornerstones of Safety II?

Answer 49

* Anticipate * Monitor * Respond * Learn ## Footnote These cornerstones focus on positive outcomes and successful behaviors.

Question 50

What is the paradox of production/safety conflict?

Answer 50

Safety investments are most important when they are least affordable. ## Footnote This highlights the challenge of balancing safety with operational demands.

Question 51

What does 'mindfulness' mean in the context of complex systems?

Answer 51

Being preoccupied with failure and encouraging the reporting of errors to prevent complacency. ## Footnote Mindfulness involves a proactive approach to safety and operations.