Midterm

Question 1

What are international human rights?

Answer 1

Rights that individuals possess by virtue of being human, regardless of nationality or jurisdiction.

The right to be free from torture is recognized internationally regardless of a country’s domestic laws.

Question 2

What is sovereignty?

Answer 2

The principle that states have supreme authority within their own borders.

China’s refusal to allow international investigations into alleged abuses in Xinjiang.

Question 3

What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

Answer 3

A 1948 document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly outlining fundamental human rights.

It proclaims the right to education and has influenced many national constitutions, including those of South Africa, Germany, and India.

Question 4

What does it mean that human rights are a Global North construct?

Answer 4

The idea that international human rights norms reflect Western, particularly Global North, values.

Some leaders in Asia argue that community rights should be emphasized over individual rights.

Question 5

What is the comparison to the ideal in human rights?

Answer 5

A method of evaluating human rights by comparing state behavior to normative standards.

Comparing Saudi Arabia’s treatment of women to rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Question 6

What is empirical comparison in human rights?

Answer 6

Evaluation of human rights performance based on data and observed practices.

Using the Political Terror Scale to compare levels of abuse in different nations.

Question 7

What are physical integrity rights?

Answer 7

Rights protecting individuals from physical harm by the state, such as torture and extrajudicial killing.

Violations include the use of death squads in El Salvador in the 1980s.

Question 8

What is the Political Terror Scale?

Answer 8

A measure of physical integrity rights violations, based on annual human rights reports.

A country rated 5 on the scale is likely engaging in widespread violence and imprisonment.

Question 9

What is the Cingranelli and Richards Index?

Answer 9

A dataset measuring government respect for various human rights, including physical integrity and empowerment rights.

Used to assess changes in human rights practices over time in Latin America.

Question 10

What is the changing standard of accountability?

Answer 10

The evolving expectation that governments will be held responsible for human rights violations.

Prosecution of former leaders like Chile’s Augusto Pinochet for past crimes.

Question 11

What is the information paradox in human rights?

Answer 11

The contradiction that more human rights information does not always lead to better outcomes.

Increased reporting on abuses in Myanmar has not led to consistent international intervention.

Question 12

What is a latent variable measure of human rights?

Answer 12

A statistical approach that infers human rights conditions from observable indicators.

Bayesian models estimating state torture rates based on media reports and expert assessments.

Question 13

What is the Human Rights Measurement Initiative?

Answer 13

A collaborative project that collects and analyzes data on human rights fulfillment worldwide.

Tracks country performance in areas like freedom from torture and access to health care.

Question 14

What is a veto player?

Answer 14

An individual or institution whose agreement is necessary for policy change.

The United States Senate can block the ratification of international treaties.

Question 15

What is repression according to Ritten and Conrad?

Answer 15

The actual or threatened use of physical sanctions against individuals or organizations for the purpose of deterring or punishing behavior.

Imprisoning protest leaders to prevent further demonstrations.

Question 16

What is dissent according to Ritten and Conrad?

Answer 16

Public criticism or opposition to state authority, ranging from protest to organized resistance.

Student protests against tuition hikes.

Question 17

What are empowerment rights?

Answer 17

Rights that enable participation in political and civic life, such as freedom of expression and assembly.

The right to vote in free and fair elections.

Question 18

What is co-optation by a dictator?

Answer 18

A strategy by which authoritarian leaders incorporate opposition into the regime to reduce conflict.

Offering political appointments to opposition leaders.

Question 19

What is state capacity?

Answer 19

The ability of a state to implement policies and provide public services.

States unable to control their police forces may struggle to prevent abuse.

Question 20

What is the moral hazard problem?

Answer 20

When protection mechanisms unintentionally encourage risky behavior.

Rebels committing abuses in the belief that foreign aid will continue regardless.

Question 21

What is an international regime?

Answer 21

A set of norms, rules, and institutions that govern international behavior in a specific area.

The global human rights regime centered around the United Nations.

Question 22

What is a binding document/decision?

Answer 22

A legal agreement or ruling that imposes obligations on parties.

Rulings of the European Court of Human Rights.

Question 23

What is the American Convention on Human Rights?

Answer 23

A regional treaty adopted by the Organization of American States to protect human rights in the Americas.

The Inter-American Court of Human Rights can rule against member states.

Question 24

What were the Nuremberg trials?

Answer 24

Post-World War II military tribunals that prosecuted Nazi leaders for crimes against humanity.

Hermann Göring was convicted and sentenced at Nuremberg.

Question 25

What is the United Nations Charter?

Answer 25

The founding document of the United Nations that outlines the organization's purposes and principles. ## Footnote Article 55 calls for universal respect for human rights.

Question 26

What is the Genocide Convention?

Answer 26

A 1948 treaty defining and criminalizing genocide under international law. ## Footnote Applied to the Rwandan genocide in 1994.

Question 27

What is the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination?

Answer 27

A treaty committing signatories to eliminate racial discrimination and promote understanding. ## Footnote South Africa's apartheid policies were condemned under this convention.

Question 28

What is the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights?

Answer 28

A treaty recognizing rights related to work, education, health, and living standards. ## Footnote Recognizes the right to adequate food and housing.

Question 29

What is the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights?

Answer 29

A treaty guaranteeing personal freedoms and protections from state abuse. ## Footnote Protects freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial.

Question 30

What is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women?

Answer 30

A United Nations treaty addressing women's rights and gender equality. ## Footnote Requires states to eliminate laws that discriminate based on gender.

Question 31

What is the Convention Against Torture?

Answer 31

An international treaty aiming to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment worldwide. ## Footnote Canada altered its extradition laws to ensure compliance with the Convention Against Torture.

Question 32

What is the Convention on the Rights of the Child?

Answer 32

A human rights treaty setting out the civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of children. ## Footnote The Convention has led to laws banning corporal punishment in many countries.

Question 33

What is the Convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers?

Answer 33

A treaty protecting the rights of migrant workers and their families. ## Footnote The treaty has been used to demand labor protections for migrant workers in the Gulf States.

Question 34

What is the International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities?

Answer 34

A treaty promoting and protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. ## Footnote Many countries enacted disability-access laws in public transportation and buildings after ratification.

Question 35

What is the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance?

Answer 35

A treaty addressing the secret arrest or abduction of individuals by the state or its agents. ## Footnote Families of the disappeared in Argentina rely on this convention for justice.

Question 36

What is the European Convention on Human Rights?

Answer 36

A regional treaty securing civil and political rights for Europeans. ## Footnote The Court ruled against the United Kingdom for mass surveillance policies.

Question 37

What is democratization?

Answer 37

The transition process from authoritarianism to democracy. ## Footnote Tunisia’s transition post-Arab Spring saw improvements in free press and elections.

Question 38

What is accountability in international law?

Answer 38

Holding individuals and states responsible for violating international norms. ## Footnote Former Liberian President Charles Taylor was convicted for war crimes.

Question 39

What is transnational activism?

Answer 39

Activism that crosses national boundaries to promote social and political change. ## Footnote Global campaigns pressured Nike to reform sweatshop conditions.

Question 40

What are smaller democracies as agents of socialization?

Answer 40

The idea that smaller democratic states can model and spread human rights norms. ## Footnote Sweden promotes global LGBT+ rights through its foreign policy.

Question 41

What is a declaration?

Answer 41

A non-binding statement of principles or intentions by an international body. ## Footnote The Universal Declaration of Human Rights laid groundwork for binding treaties.

Question 42

What is an international treaty?

Answer 42

A legally binding agreement between states governed by international law. ## Footnote The Geneva Conventions regulate warfare and treatment of civilians.

Question 43

What is a treaty signature?

Answer 43

Indicates a state’s preliminary endorsement of a treaty. ## Footnote The United States signed but never ratified the Rome Statute.

Question 44

What is treaty ratification?

Answer 44

The formal approval of a treaty by a state's legislature or executive. ## Footnote France ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1980.

Question 45

What is treaty accession?

Answer 45

A state's acceptance of a treaty it did not sign when it was open for signature. ## Footnote South Africa acceded to the Convention Against Torture in 1998.

Question 46

What is treaty succession?

Answer 46

When a new state becomes party to a treaty signed by its predecessor state. ## Footnote After the Soviet Union dissolved, Russia succeeded to many of its treaties.

Question 47

What is a reservation?

Answer 47

A unilateral statement by a state to exclude or modify parts of a treaty. ## Footnote The United States entered a reservation to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women regarding abortion.

Question 48

What is derogation?

Answer 48

Temporary suspension of treaty obligations during emergencies. ## Footnote France derogated certain rights under the European Convention on Human Rights after terrorist attacks.

Question 49

Who is the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights?

Answer 49

The leading official responsible for promoting and protecting human rights in the United Nations. ## Footnote Michelle Bachelet served as High Commissioner from 2018 to 2022.

Question 50

What is a false positive (ratifiers)?

Answer 50

States that ratify treaties but do not comply with their obligations. ## Footnote Egypt ratified many human rights treaties but has a record of repression.

Question 51

What is a false negative (nonratifiers)?

Answer 51

States that do not ratify treaties but respect rights in practice. ## Footnote The United States has not ratified some treaties but still enforces many rights.

Question 52

What is self-enforcement?

Answer 52

States comply with international law based on self-interest and internal accountability. ## Footnote Democracies often comply with treaties to preserve reputation and legitimacy.

Question 53

What is a collective action problem?

Answer 53

When individual states lack incentive to act because they hope others will shoulder the burden. ## Footnote Few countries intervened in Syria due to high costs and low individual benefits.

Question 54

What is third-party enforcement?

Answer 54

External actors or institutions hold states accountable for violations. ## Footnote The International Criminal Court prosecutes individuals for crimes when states fail to act.

Question 55

What is the compliance gap?

Answer 55

The difference between treaty ratification and actual behavior. ## Footnote States may report compliance while still violating rights.

Question 56

What is a treaty body?

Answer 56

A committee of experts that monitors implementation of a specific treaty. ## Footnote The Human Rights Committee oversees the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

Question 57

What is the Human Rights Committee?

Answer 57

A treaty body established under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. ## Footnote Reviews reports and considers individual complaints.

Question 58

What is self-reporting?

Answer 58

When states submit progress reports to treaty bodies on their implementation efforts. ## Footnote A country may report on new laws but omit ongoing violations.

Question 59

What is a shadow report?

Answer 59

A report submitted by non-governmental organizations offering alternative information to official state reports. ## Footnote Human Rights Watch submitted a shadow report challenging Sudan’s claims on press freedom.

Question 60

What is a petition/complaint from individuals?

Answer 60

A mechanism that allows individuals to bring cases to international treaty bodies. ## Footnote A Peruvian woman filed a complaint with the Human Rights Committee over denied access to abortion.