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Human Anatomy > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Examples of excitatory neurotransmitters

A

glutamate, aspartate, acetylcholine

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2
Q

Examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

GABA, glycine

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3
Q

Which neurotransmitters can exert excitatory and inhibitory effects?

A

dopamine. serotonin

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4
Q

What do excitatory neurotransmitters do?

A

lower the postsynaptic membrane potential to increase firing rate (EPSP)

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5
Q

What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?

A

stabilize or raise the postsynaptic potential to decrease firing rate (IPSP)

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6
Q

agonist neuromodulator

A

mimics action of neurotransmitter by binding to receptor

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7
Q

antagonist neuromodulator

A

blocks action of neurotransmitter by binding to receptor

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8
Q

facilitation neuromodulator

A

enhances effect of neurotransmitter by its increased concentration in the synaptic cleft, slower degradation, or slower reuptake resulting in greater response in the postsynaptic cell

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9
Q

inhibition neuromodulator

A

reduces effect of neurotransmitter by its decreased concentration in the synaptic cleft, faster degradation, or faster reuptake resulting in a lesser response in the postsynaptic cell

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10
Q

neuromodulation

A

release of chemicals from cells that alter or regulate the response of neurons to neurotransmitters

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11
Q

neuromodulator function

A

molecules can have enabling or disabling effect on the response to the neurotransmitter by binding allosterically to the postsynaptic receptor

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12
Q

what are the two types of postsynaptic receptors that neurotransmitters bind to?

A

ionotropic (ion channels)
metabotropic

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13
Q

main classes of neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine (Ach)
biogenic amines (catecholamines, indolamines)
amino acids
neuropeptides

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14
Q

what are catecholamines synthesized from?

A

tyrosine

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15
Q

what are indolamines synthesized from?

A

histidine (ex. histidine) or tryptophan (ex. serotonin)

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16
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

ligand-gated transmembrane ion channels that can open in response to a binding molecule

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17
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

non-channel transmembrane proteins where a series of events may open another ion channel or activate other molecules within the cell

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18
Q

nicotinic receptors are

A

ionotropic, excitatory

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19
Q

where are nicotinic receptors found

A

-somatic effector (skeletal muscle) at neuromuscular junctions in the somatic nervous system
-postganglionic neurons at their synapse with preganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia of the ANS
-spinal cord of CNS

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20
Q

muscarinic receptors are

A

metabotropic, either excitatory or inhibitory

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21
Q

muscarinic receptors are found in

A

-remainder of CNS (brain)
-autonomic effector (cardiac and smooth muscle, glands w cholinergic innervation) at its synapse with the postganglionic neuron in the ANS

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22
Q

what is Alzheimer’s disease associated with

A

degeneration of cholinergic neurons
-decreased amount of Ach
-loss of postsynaptic neurons that would have responded to it

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23
Q

monoamine oxidase (MAO) function

A

enzyme that degrades catecholamines

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24
Q

adrenergic receptor types

A

alpha adrenergic receptors (usually excitatory)
beta adrenergic receptors (usually inhibitory)

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25
adrenergic receptors
G protein coupled receptors that are generally linked to a second messenger signal transduction pathway
26
what second messenger is associated with alpha adrenergic receptors
alpha1- Ca2+ ions alpha2- cAMP
27
what second messenger is associated with beta adrenergic receptors
cAMP
28
effects of beta adrenergic receptor subclasses
beta1- activation increases heart rate and contractility beta2- relaxes smooth muscle in lung bronchioles to allow more oxygen intake during exercise
29
sympathetic preganglionic fibers
always cholinergic
30
sympathetic postganglionic fibers
mostly adrenergic, a few cholinergic
31
parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
always cholinergic
32
parasympathetic postganglionic fibers
always cholinergic
33
where are indolamines found?
brain and spinal cord (CNS)
34
serotonin effects (inhibitory? excitatory?)
excitatory effect on muscle control and inhibitory effect on pathways that mediate sensation
35
when are serotonin levels lowest and highest?
lowest- sleep highest- alertness
35
when are serotonin levels lowest and highest?
lowest- sleep highest- alertness
36
serotonin function
regulating sleep, emotions, vomiting reflex, regulates cell growth, vascular smooth muscle cell contraction
37
Parkinson's disease brain involvement
loss of dopamine-releasing neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain
38
Parkinson's symptoms
persistent tremors, head nodding and pill rolling behaviors, forward bent walking posture, shuffling gait, stiff facial expressions, slow initiation and execution of movement
39
which neurotransmitter type is the most abundant?
amino acid
40
most common inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA- dampens neural activity in the brain
41
Tissues
groups of cells and the surrounding external that serve a common function
42
3 primary germ layers
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
43
Hypertrophy
increase in cell size while the number of cells within the tissue remain constant
44
hyperplasia
increase in the number of cells in a tissue
45
atrophy
reduction in cell size and/or the number of cells in a tissue
46
necrosis
refers to dead tissue and described as "necrotic" clinically
47
metaplasia
tissues that transform into another tissue type
48
dyplasia
abnormal tissue development, may eventually form a tumor or return to normal tissue
49
neoplasm
tumor can be non-cancerous and localized (benign) or cancerous and invasive (malignant)
50
metastatic
malignant neoplasms that have spread to other parts of the body
51
components of H & E stains
hematoxylin and eosin
52
hematoxylin
basic stain that stains acidic/basophilic structures blue/purple ex) nuclei, ribosome, DNA, rER
53
eosin
acidic stain that stains basic/acidophilic structures pink ex) collagen fibers, cytoskeleton
54
functions of epithelial tissues
barrier/protection absorption of nutrients/fluids transport across epithelial layers secretion of hormones, enzymes, mucous
55
function of microvilli
increase surface area, allowing for more absorption
56
where are cilia found?
respiratory tract, female reproductive tract
57
corneal endothelium shape
hexagonal to maximize surface area
58
how many layers does corneal endothelium have
single layer of flattened cells
59
simple cuboidal epithelium morphology
singly layer, polygon-shaped
60
simple cuboidal epithelium function
secretion, absorption
61
where is simple cuboidal epithelium found?
kidney tubules, serves as the secretory unit of exocrine glands
62
simple columnar epithelium morphology
single layer, rectangular, nuclei often aligned basally
63
simple columnar epithelium function
absorption, secretion
64
simple columnar epithelium is found in
intestines (small, colon) stomach
65
simple columnar epithelium with cilia found in
female reprodcutive tract, bronchi and bronchioles
66
stratified squamous epithelium morphology
flattened superficial cells +/- keratinization basal layers mitotically active, cells migrate towards the surface
67
stratified squamous epithelium function
protection, secretion
68
stratified squamous epithelium found in
mouth, esophagus, cornea, vagina (SSNK), epidermis (SSK)
69
stratified cuboidal epithelium function
absoption, secretion
70
stratified cuboidal epithelium found in
internal walls of the gland ducts
71
pseudostratified columnar epithelium morphology
-pseudo-multilayered, columnar shaped -nuclei not aligned -typically ciliated
72
pseudostratified columnar epithelium function
conduction, protetion, secretion
73
pseudostratified columnar epithelium found in
respiratory tract ("respiratory epithelium")- trachea, bronchi
74
goblet cell morphology
modified columnsar epithelial cells, unicellular
75
goblet cell function
synthesize and secrete mucous that serves as a first line barrier of the immune system
76
goblet cells found in
scattered throughout many epithelial tissue linings -respiratory tract -ocular conjunctiva -digestive tract
77
transitional epithelium morphology
stratified; cuboidal (non-distended) to squamous (distended)
78
transitional epithelium function
protection, distention
79
transitional epithelium found in
urinary tract (urinary epithelium)
80
exocrine glands type of secretion
mucous, serous (tears), seromucous (mucoid), sebaceous (meibum), sudoriferous (sweat)
81
merocrine (eccrine) secretion
-most common -involves exocytosis (vesicles) as only secretory component released from glandular cells -primarily protein products
82
apocrine secretion
membrane bound vesicles (apical) primarily lipid-based products
83
apocrine secretion found in
breast and some sweat glands used for thermoregulation, sexual attractant
84
types of growth in hyaline cartilage
interstitial growth, appositional growth
85
interstitial growth
from center, height
86
appositional growth
from edge, width primary mechanism of cartilage growth
87
compact (cortical) bone
dense with organic ground substance and inorganic salts that also contain lacunae
88
cancellous bone
spongy; less dense and more porous contains bone marrow

Human Anatomy (3 decks)

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