Midterm #2 Flashcards
(210 cards)
1
Q
Respiratory System Tract
A
-Nose + Nasal cavity
Paranasal Sinuses
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lungs + Pleurae
Bronchial Tree
Alveoli
Ventilation
2
Q
Nose contains
A
*external nose and nasal cavity
provides airway
*moisten airs
filters inhaled air
resonating chamber of speech
*houses olfactory receptors
3
Q
External nose contains
A
skin (extended in vestibule), bone, and cartilage
roots and bridge of nose - inbetween eyebrows
ala of nose - ridge above naris
apex - tip of nose
naris - nostrils
*skin of nose is thin at root and thicker over the cartilages
*contains sebaceous glands
4
Q
Skeleton of External Nose
A
frontal bone - nasal margin & nasal spine
nasal bone
maxillary bone (frontal process)
cartilage - hyaline
alar and septal
size differences is due to nasal cartilages
5
Q
nasal cavity
A
external naris - nostrils
divides by nasal septum
continuous with nasopharynx - anterior to nasal cavity
nasal conchae and meatus
lined with mucous membrane
nasal vestibule - porch at entryway of naris
lined with hair, sebaceous glands and sweet glands
function: filters large particles from inhaled air
6
Q
Nasal Mucosa
A
lines nasal cavity besides vestibule and paranasal sinuses
respiratory epithelium: pseudostratified ciliated columnar with cilia and goblet cells
- cilia moves contained mucus posteriorly to the pharynx which is digested by digestive juices
lamina propria - loose connective tissue containing mucous and serous cells
produces 1L of mucus (mucus swallowed = two water bottles)
7
Q
Mucus overnight surface of mucosa function
A
digest and destroy bacteria (contains enzyme)
filter debris from inhaled air
moistens inhaled air
8
Q
Skeleton of nasal cavity
A
Nasal septum: ethmoid, vomer, septal cartilages
Roof: ethmoid and sphenoid
Nasal concha -lined with mucosa membrane:
- superior and middle: ethmoid
- inferior: vomer
Floor (palate):
- hard: maxillary bone and palatine bone
- soft: muscles
9
Q
Nasal cavity is made up of:
A
nasal conchae: superior, middle, and inferior
10
Q
Where does nose bleeding occur?
A
Kiesselbach area: anterior nasal septum, contains anastomosing arteries
11
Q
Paranasal Sinuses
A
Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Maxillary
sinuses open up to middle nasal meatus in nasal cavity
lined with mucous membrane
12
Q
Rhinitis and Sinusitis
A
Rhinitis (for nasal cavity): mucosa swollen and inflamed in the nasal cavity
Sinusitis (for one sinus): mucosa swollen and inflamed in paranasal sinus
13
Q
Pharynx
A
Function: funnel shaped passageway fro both air and food
connect nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus inferiorly
divided into three sections:
- nasopharynx: nose
- oropharynx: mouth
- laryngopharynx: larynx
14
Q
Nasopharynx
A
continuous with nasal cavity; posterior nasal aperture
superior: base of skull
inferior: level of soft plate
-closed of when swallowing by uvula
only an air passageway
RE: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium: propelling mucus from nasal cavity downward
contains pharyngeal tonsils: destroys entering pathogens located on posterior wall
opening to pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube): provides protection from infection
15
Q
Oropharynx
A
passageway way fro both food and air
superior: soft palate
inferior: epiglottis
stratified squamous epithelium
- entrance from mouth is the arch like structure at the back of the throat
tonsils:
- palatine: on lateral walls of fauces
- lingual: cover posterior surface of tongue
16
Q
Laryngopharynx is what
A
passageway for both air and food
stratified squamous epithelium
continuous with esophagus and larynx
extends to inferior boundary of cricoid cartilage
17
Q
Larynx extends from where to where?
A
- Extends from 4th to 6th Cervical vertebrae
- anterior to laryngopharynx and attaches to hyoid bone superiorly
- inferiorly: continuous with trachea
18
Q
Larynx Cartilages
A
Eating - Epiglottis (elastic)
Cheddar - Cuneiform
Cheese - Corniculate
A - Arytenoid (voice)
T - Thyroid (Adams Apple)
Costco- Cricoid
19
Q
Vocal Ligaments of Larynx
A
Vocal folds: true vocal cords - (elastic fiber) sound production
Vestibular folds: false vocal cords - enhance high frequency sounds
Rima glottis: opening of vocal folds
glottis: rima glottis and vocal cords together
20
Q
Epithelium of the larynx
A
Superior to Vocal Cords: Stratified Squamous
Inferior to Vocal Cords: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar (dust trapping mucus moving upwards)
21
Q
Aspiration of foreign bodies + Heimlich maneuver (choking) is what?
A
aspiration is when food getting stuck in vestibule fold - mucosa sensitive to foreign subject, cough reflex
heimlich maneuver: compression of abdomen
22
Q
Trachea contains
A
hyaline “C” shaped cartilage rings keep airway open
*trachealis: located btw open ends of C shaped cartilage rings along length of posterior trachea
carina: marks where trachea divides into two primary bronchi
23
Q
Trachea made up of
A
(inner) Mucosa: RE (pseudostratified ciliated columnar) + lamina propria
Submucosa: seromucus gland
(outer) Adventitia: fibromusculocartilaginous layer
(fibroelastic connective tissue + cartilaginous rings + tracealis)
24
Q
Larynx functions
A
voice production
provides airway
framework is arrangement of nine cartilages
25
Respiratory Mucosa
RE: pseudostratified ciliated columnar + lamina propria (loose connective tissue)
26
The trachea descends from _______ to _________
pharynx and mediastinum
27
Larynx function
*function: routes air and food into the proper channels*
superior openings:
- closed when swallowing
- open when breathing
28
What are Bronchial Trees?
extensively branching respiratory passageways
29
Order of Bronchi?
Primary (main bronchi: left and right) into lungs
Secondary: lobar bronchus, division from inside lungs
Tertiary: segmental bronchi, smaller branches
Bronchioles: smallest branches
Terminal bronchioles: ends
30
Primary Bronchi (Main)
branches of trachea, largest bronchi
31
Differences between Left and Right Main Bronchi
Left: longer and narrower, more horizontal
Right: wider and shorter, more vertical
- more likely to have foreign substances
32
Secondary (lobar) Bronchi
Right has 3
Left has 2
*contains irregular cartilage of hyaline*
each secondary bronchi provides air passageway to each love of the lung therefore right has three lobes and left has two
33
Tertiary (segemental) bronchi
branch into each lung segment- largest subdivision of a lobe
right = 10
left = 8-10
34
Smaller Bronchi
divide repeatedly into smaller bronchi, about 23 (20-25)
*CONTAINS NO CARTILAGE*
bronchioles: little bronchi
35
Changes in Epithelium in Bronchi
Trachea: pseudostratified ciliated columnar (RE)
Primary: pseudostratified ciliated columnar (RE)
Secondary: simple columnar (no cilia, mucus producing cells)
Tertiary: simple cuboidal (no cilia, no mucus producing cells)
36
Smooth Muscle in Bronchi
airways widen with sympathetic stimulation
airways constricts under parasympathetic direction
37
Respiratory Zone is?
the respiratory zone which takes place in the terminal bronchioles
*ALVEOLI* = respiratory zone
38
What takes place at the terminal bronchioles?
gas exchange occurs where smooth muscle is absent
leading to alveolar ducts that contains clusters of ALVEOLI
39
What are Alveoli?
tremendous surface area for gas exchange
40
what is the respiratory membrane?
alveolar + capillary walls + fused basal lamina
- O2 and CO2 gas exchange
41
Structures of Alveoli
Type 1: single layer of simple squamous epithelial cells and surrounded by basal lamina
Type 2: cuboidal epithelia cells that secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension within aveoli
42
What are Alveolar macrophages?
they remove tiniest particles that migrated into bronchi by ciliary action and to the pharynx
43
Alveolar ducts are surrounded by?
elastic fibers
44
Mediastinum is?
where the heart is located in between the lungs
45
What is the Hilum?
Indentation on mediastinal surface, where blood vessels, bronchi, and nerves enter and exit the lung
46
What is the root of the lung?
the structures that enter and leave the lung at the hilum
- blood vessels: 2 veins and 1 artery each side
- bronchi: left and right primary bronchi
nerves
47
Difference in Left and Right Lung?
Left has two lobes, superior and inferior that is divided by the oblique fissure. Contains the cardiac notch, a depression that accommodates the heart
Right has three lobes, superior, middle, and inferior, that is divided by the oblique and horizontal fissure
48
Lungs at each segment are..?
at each segment they are supplied by tertiary bronchi and tertiary branches of the pulmonary artery, drained by inter segmental parts of the pulmonary veins
and surgically respectable
49
What is the Pleurae?
two serous membrane that lines the lungs and thoracic cavity
- visceral pleurae: closer to the lung
- parietal pleurae: closer to the thoracic cavity
help divided the thoracic cavity
- central mediastinum
- two lateral pleural compartments
*simple squamous*
50
Space inbetween the Parietal and Visceral Pleurae?
pleural fluid
51
Explain Pleural cavity and Ventilation
the lung is surrounded by pleural cavity and parietal (thoracic) and visceral (lungs) slide from side to side across each other. where if thoracic cavity increases, pleural cavity increases, and lungs increase —> breathing
52
Ventilation Mechanism
Breathing, aka Pulmonary Ventilation
mechanical factors: muscles and skeleton
53
Diaphragm function for respiration
chief muscle of respiration (muscolotendinous)
-domes flattens on contraction
-phrenic nerve C3-5
54
Muscles of the Thorax
external intercostal muscles: elevate rib cage (inhalation)
internal intercostal muscles: depress rib cage (exhalation)
*function: together during quiet inspiration to stiffen the thoracic wall*
55
Movements of Thoracic walls for ventialation
1. pump handle movement
- anterior end of ribs, sternum
2. bucket handle movement
- middle (lateral most) of ribs
56
Neural Control on Ventilation
ventilators rhythm and rate
- VRG: ventilators rhythm group: located in the medulla oblongata
spinal cord: somatic motor neurons
- phrenic nerves: C3-5
- intercostal nerves
57
Modifications of Neural Control on Ventilation
modifications to ventilatory rhythm and rate
- override by higher centers of the brain
- modified by input from chemoreceptors
58
Nerves in the Lungs
1. viscera motor Neuros: involuntary innervation
2. smooth muscle of the bronchial tree
3. pulmonary plexus:
- parasympathetic fibers: motor, bronchoconstriction
- sympathetic simulation: inhibit, bronchodilation
59
Asthma
bronchiole contains no cartilage
allergic inflammation: hypersensitivity to irritants in the air or to stress
asthma attacks: contraction of bronchiole smooth muscle and secretion of mucus in airways
60
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
history of smoking/air pollution
airflow into and out of the lungs is difficult
- emphysema: breakdown of elastin in connective tissue of lungs causes destruction of alveolar walls and loss of elasticity in lungs
- chronic bronchitis: continual bronchial irritation and inflammation causes excess mucus production and chronic productive cough
61
Early Development Markings
At week 4: olfactory placodes appear and laryngotrachael bud (forms trachea and bronchi)
At fetal: lung filled with fluid and respiratory exchange through placenta
At birth: only 1/6 alveoli present
62
What happens when people begin smoking as teenagers?
lungs never fully develop
additional alveoli never form
63
Aging of the respiratory system
1. number of glands in the nasal mucosa declines
2. nose dries: produces thickened mucus
3. thoracic wall becomes more rigid
4. lungs lose elasticity
5. oxygen levels in the blood may fall
64
What is the alimentary canal?
mouth —> pharynx —> esophagus —> stomach —> small intensive —> large intestine
65
what are accessory digestive organs
teeth and tongue
gallbladder
salivary glands
liver
pancreas
66
What is the peritoneum?
lining of abdominal wall and holds everything together
67
what are mesenteries?
a fold in the peritoneum that attaches the stomach, small intestine, pancreas, spleen, and other organs to the posterior abdominal wall
68
What is the digestive process?
1. ingestion: occurs in the mouth and where mechanical breakdown first starts
2. propulsion: movement of food down the alimentary canal; peristalsis
3. mechanical breakdown: prepares food for chemical breakdown/digestion (chewing, churning food in stomach)
4. Digestion: complex molecules broken down to chemical compounds
5. Absorption: transport digested nutrients
6. Defecation: elimination of indigestible substances as feces
69
Movement of digestive tract
two types of movement:
1: peristalsis: adjacent segments of alimentary tract organs moving food along the tract distally from the mouth
2. segmentation: nonadjacent segments alimentary tract moving the food in rhythmic local contractions, back and forth, mixing food and digestive juices
70
what are the layers of the Alimentary canal wall?
*same four layers from esophagus to anus*
1. mucosa- innermost layer
2. submucosa- external to mucosa, blood and lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers
3. muscularis external- external to submucosa
4. serosa- outermost layer, contains visceral peritonuem
71
Layers of Mucosa and function?
*mucosa inner most layer*
1. epithelium
2. lamina propria (loose CT)
3. muscularis mucosae
function: absorbing nutrients and secreting mucus
- continuous with ducts and secretory cells and intrinsic digestive glands
72
Layers and function of Submucosa?
*second most inner layer*
- layer: moderately dense connective tissue
- function: major blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers
73
Function and layers of Muscularis externa?
Layers:
1. circular muscularis: inner layer - squeezes
(in cross section: all parallel movement)
2. longitidinal muscularis: outer layer - shortens
(in cross section: irregular movement)
Function: together - peristalsis and segmentation
74
Where is smooth muscle found in the alimentary canal?
Types of smooth muscle?
Function?
primarily located in the walls of viscera
Types:
- longitudinal layer: parallel to long axis of organ
- circular layer: deeper layer, fibers run around circumference of organ
function:
- contraction: is slow and sustained - low energy requirement and resistant to fatigue
- involuntary innervation
75
Serosa contains
visceral peritoneum
76
What comprises the oral cavity of the mouth?
mucosa lined cavity of stratified squamous
Lips anteriorly, cheeks laterally, palate superiorly, tongue inferiorly, fauces of oropharynx posteriorly
anterior opening: oral orifice (lips opening)
posterior opening: fauces (back of throat opening)
oral vestibule: gums
oral cavity proper (inside of mouth)
77
Oral cavity lined?
mucosal layer: stratified squamous and lamina propria
- all of the oral cavity except for gingivia (gums), hard and soft palate, and dorsal surface of tongue have keratinization
78
What muscles make up the oral cavity?
lips and cheeks
obicularis oris and buccinator
79
What connects the lips and the gums?
labial frenulum
80
What is the palate?
forms the roof of the mouth, consists of the hard and soft palate, and uvula
81
Muscles of the tongue?
intrinsic: within the tongue
extrinsic: external to the tongue
82
Function of the tongue?
grips food and repositions it, helps form some consonants
secured by lingual frenulum
83
Types of tongue papillae?
1. filiform: roughen the tongue
2. fungiform: taste buds on top
3. vallate: posterior 1/3 of tongue, taste buds on sides
- lies in oropharynx
- lined with lingual tonsil
84
Sulcus terminalis is..?
border between mouth and pharynx
85
How many teeth appear in the first 6 months?
20
86
How many permanent teeth do we have?
32
87
Dental formula for adults
2 incisors
1 canine
2 premolar
3 molars
88
Dental formula for kids
(2-6 years)
2 incisors
1 canine
2 molars (kids molars)
89
what are wisdom teeth called?
third molars (unerupted)
- the last to erupt
- usually late teens or early 20’s
90
Layers of teeth?
crown: exposed surface
neck
root: in tooth socket
enamel: outer layer
dentin: underlies enamel
pulp cavity: contains blood vessels and nerves
gingival sulcus: outer layer of gums
gingiva: gums
cement: calcified connective tissue (separating periodontal ligament and dentin)
periodontal ligament: peridotium, holds tooth in place
root canal
gomphoses: tooth socket, a fibrojoint
91
Salivary glands
produce saliva: moistens mouth, dissolves food chemicals to taste, wet food, digestion of carbohydrates and fats
92
Minor (intrinsic) salivary gland?
scattered cells within mucosa
93
major (extrinsic) salivary glands?
parotid: parallel to zygomatic arch
submandibular: along medial surface of mandible
sublingual: in floor of oral cavity (underneath tongue), contains mainly mucous cells
94
Muscles of the pharynx and function?
consist of superior, middle, and inferior pharyngeal constrictors
contracts: from superior to inferior to squeeze the bolus into esophagus
95
Esophagus
a muscular tube that begins as a continuation of the pharynx (laryngopharynx) and joins the stomach inferior to the diaphragm
-specifically the cardiac sphincter, which closes the lumen to prevent stomach acid from entering esophagus
96
what is hiatal hernia?
aka heart burn
GERD: gastroesophageal reflux disease
weakness of cardiac sphincter
can lead to esophageal ulcer
97
layers of the esophageal?
same four layers of alimentary canal
mucosa: stratified squamous epithelium, most internal layer
submucosa: areolar connective tissue, mucous glands
muscularis externa: first third = skeletal muscle, second third = mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle, last third = smooth muscle (circular and longitudinal layer)
adventitia: fibrous connective tissue, in trachea, most external layer
98
Sections of the stomach?
*J Shaped*
1. cardinal part: inferior to esophagus
2. fundus: most superior section
3. body: biggest section
4. pyloric part: most inferior part of stomach
rugae: lines of mucosa
99
Functions of the Stomach?
1. churn food into chyme
2. secretion of pepsin begins protein digestion (in acidic conditions)
3. temporary storage tank: some substance absorbed (water, electrolytes, and some drugs)
*food stays in stomach fro roughly 4 hours*
100
Layers of stomach
1. stomach mucosa: simple columnar!!
- secretion of mucus to protect stomach from effects of acid and pepsin
- mucosa dotted with gastric pits
- gastric glands activate pepsin when encountered by chief (zygomatic) cells
2. submucosa: areolar connective tissue
3. muscularis externa:
circular (around the organ) and longitudinal (parallel to long axis of organ): churn and pummel food into small fragments
oblique (inner most layer)
*pyloric sphincter: thickening go circular layer* hard v shaped
101
What is congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis?
pyloric stenosis too huge, not allowing for food digested to go into small intestine leading to forceful vomiting
102
What are chief cells?
zygomatic cells that activate pepsin to start protein digestion
103
The small intestine
- longest portion of alimentary canal
- site of most enzymatic digestion and absorption
-subdivisions:
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
innervation: *same as stomach*
-parasympathetic fibers from vagus nerve
-sympathetic from thoracic splanchnic nerves
104
Duodenum contains
main pancreatic duct and common bile duct, where sphincters control entry of bile and pancreatic juices through the major and minor duodenal papilla from the hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter in the descending part
receives digestive enzymes and bile
105
Duodenal ulcers?
mostly occur in superior part, right after the pyloric sphincter
106
paraduodenal hernia
duodenojejunal junction, retroperitoneal to intraperitoneal. *where the duodenum and jejunum meet
107
Jejunum and Ileum circular folds
“empty” and “twisted”
circular folds = plicae circulars of jejunum is large, tall, and closely packed; and the ileum is low and sparse and absent at the distal end
108
The _______ is thicker and muscular, whereas _______ is softer and thinner.
jejunum and ileum
109
Ileal Diverticulum is..?
aka meckel diverticulum, a congenital anomaly that occurs in 1-2% of the population where the small intestine is opened and the opening is 74% of the chance free and 26% of the chance attached to the umbilicus
- maybe inflamed and produce pain mimicking that of appendicitis
110
Layers of Small Intestine
mucosa: *simple columnar epithelium* with goblet cells, absorptive enterocytes, and enteroendocrine cells
-mucous epithelium and lamina propria
submucosa: areolar connective tissue
muscularis externa: longitudinal and circular
serosa: visceral peritoneum
111
Small Intestine Modifications for Absoprtion:
1. Circular folds = plicae folds: transverse ridges of mucosa and submucosa
2. villi: finger like projections of mucosa covered simple columnar
3. further increase surface area for absorption
112
what are absorptive enterocytes?
uptake digested nutrients
113
goblet cells?
secret mucus that lubricates chyme
114
enteroendocrine cells (duodenum):
secrete hormones that signal to start digesting further
115
intestinal crypts (pits):
epithelial cells secrete intestinal juices
116
Duodenal (brunners) glands:
located in the submucosa
secrete alkaline mucus to neutralize the acidity of the chyme from the stomach
117
what are peptic ulcers?
erosions of the mucosa of a region of the alimentary canal
118
gastric and duodenal ulcers are caused by..?
helicobacter pylori
- acid resistant
- binds gastric epithelium
- induces oversecretion of acid and inflammation
119
Large Intestine
- digested residue contains few nutrients
- small amount of digestion by bacteria
- *main function: absorb water and electrolytes*
- mass peristaltic movements: forces feces toward the rectum
120
Section of the Large Intestine
through ileocecal junction into cecum, appendix, ascending colon, (right colic flexure) transverse colon, (left colic flexure) descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal
121
Appendix & Appendicitis
- vermiform appendix
appendicitis: appendix inflamed or filled with pus, pain in lower right abdomen. and periumbilical region
122
Colon Anatomy
cecum
ascending colon —> right hepatic flexure
transverse colon —> left splenic flexure
descending colon
sigmoid colon
123
what is taenia coli? and located?
located on the large intestine, specifically the muscularis externa
it is three strips, thickening of longitudinal muscularis externa that goes around the large intestine
124
What is appendices epiploicae
aka omental appendices: fat filled pouch in the peritoneal sac
125
What is diverticulosis?
an externa evaginations or outpocketing of the mucosa of the colon, *subject to infection and rupture*
- distorts and erode the nutrient arteries
126
Rectum
terminal part of the large intestine
*no taniae coli, no appendices epiploicae*
contains superior, intermediate, and inferior later flexure as well as superior, middle, and inferior transverse rectal fold
strong contraction for defecation
127
Anal canal has what type of epithelium
stratified squamous epithelium
128
Anal Canal structure
begins at rectum, passes levator ani through the anorectal angle, through anal columns and anal valves, lubricated by anal sinuses, and passed through the pectinate line
129
Anal Sphincters
internal: smooth muscle
external: skeletal muscle
130
large intestine epithelium
mucosa: simple columnar
*at anal canal: switched back to stratified squamous*
- villi is absent
submucosa: loose connective tissue
muscularis externa: teniae
serosa: appendices epiploicae
131
the liver is the _________
largest gland
132
digestive function of the liver
bile production
- performs over 500 functions
133
how many lobes does the liver have?
four: right and left, as well as caudate and quadrate
right lobe is the largest
caudate is located superiorly between the right and left
quadrate is located inferiorly between the right and left, it is also next to the gallbladder
134
Liver: Surface and Special relationships
- hepatorenal recess aka morisons pouch, is in between the right lobe of the liver and right kidney
- diaphragmatic surface aka superior surface
- visceral surface aka inferior surface
135
Fissures of the Live
Right sagittal fissure: groove for the Inferior Vena Cava and fossa for gallbladder
Left sagittal fissure: aka umbilical fissure: fissure for the round ligament anteriorly and ligamentum posteriorly
Porta hepatis: where vessels and ducts that supply and drain the liver enter and leave
136
What is the porta Hepatis
horizontal fissure in between the left and right sagittal fissure of the liver
vessels nerves and ducts leave and enter the liver to supply and drain it
*hepatic proper artery, hepatic portal vein, and bile duct*
137
functions of hepatocytes?
functional cells of the liver
*-rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures blood proteins
-smooth ER: produces bile salts, detoxifies poisons
-peroxisomes detoxify poisons (alcohol)
-golgi apparatus packages secretory products
-mitochondria provide energy for liver processes
-glycosomes store sugar
-great capacity for regeneration*
138
what is cirrhosis liver?
cellular damaged liver and consequent scarring from *chronic alcoholism*
139
Gallbladder Anatomy
fundus: inferior
body
neck: near porta hepatis
140
Gallbladder function
store and concentrate bile
expels bile into duodenum though cystic duct to bile duct to hepatopancreatic ampulla
141
Biliary duct
unites the common pancreatic duct to enter the duodenum
-hepatocytes secrete bile into smaller biliary ducts
142
what cholecystitis?
inflammation of the gallbladder
143
pancreas function
exocrine secretions: produces most enzymes that digest food in the small intestine
endocrine secretions: produces insulin and glucagon to blood, regulates blood sugar
144
pancreatic duct
joins bile duct to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla which empties into the duodenum
-extends the length of the pancreas
-accessory pancreatic duct enter duodenum alone
145
development of pancreas
1. before rotation, ventral and dorsal buds
2. after rotation, head body and tail grow
3.union of ducts
146
Exocrine functions in the pancreas
makes acinar cells that secrete pancreatic enzymes (22 different types) which are activated in the duodenum
147
Pancreatitis
inflammation of pancreas
blockage of hepatopancreatic ampulla creating a build up of bile and forced to enter the pancreatic duct
148
What is the embryological gut?
Foregut
Midgut
Hindgut
149
What is the foregut?
esophagus, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, liver, and biliary ducts
150
what is the midgut?
small intestine distal to bile duct, cecum, appendix, asked if colon
151
what is the hindgut?
distal part of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum
152
what is the peritoneum?
serous membrane surrounding the GI tract in abdominal cavity
*simple squamous epithelium*
153
what is the mesentery?
a double layer of peritoneum
- extends from body wall to organ: holds organs in place
- store fat
- provides route for circulatory vessels and nerves
154
Visceral peritoneum vs Parietal peritoneum
visceral covers digestive organs while parietal covers the paritoneal cavity
155
mesentery proper is..?
the mesentery of the small intestine
156
Greater omentum
extends from the greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon
contains: stomach, duodenum, transverse and reaches the pelvis inferiorly
*policeman of the abdomen*
ligament: gatrocolic ligament
157
Lesser omentum
extends from the liver to lesser curvature of the stomach
contains: liver, stomach, and duodenum
two continuous ligaments:
- hepatoduodenal and hepatogatric ligament
158
abdominal cavity
contains the abdominal organs and the peritoneal cavity
suspended between and supported by the thoracic skeleton and pelvic girdle
159
What are intraparitoneal organs?
surrounded by peritoneal cavity
stomach, first part of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, and appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon, upper 1/3 rectum, liver, tailor pancreas, spleen
160
what are retroperitoneal organs?
kidneys, ureters, suprarenal glands, inferior 2/3 of rectum
161
Digestive system in later life
middle age: gallstones and ulcers
older age: digestive organs decline
- fewer digestive juices and enzymes are produced
- absorption is less efficient, peristalsis slows
- dehydration of fecal mass leads to constipation
diverticulosis and cancer of digestive organs
162
functions of blood
hematology: study of blood
transportation of nutrients, signaling molecules, respiratory gasses, waste products
163
Blood circulation
powered by the pumping action of the heart
- oxygen and nutrients diffuse across capillary walls to body tissue
- transports hormones from endocrine glands
- conveys cells of immune system
- regulates body temperature
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gas exchange occurs where?
in capillary beds of the lungs and all body tissues
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Blood is
specialized connective tissue
- blood cells formed by elements
- plasma - liquid portion of blood
develops from mesenchyme
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blood volume
males: 5-6 liters
females: 4-5 liters
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composition of blood
plasma: water, proteins, nutrients, hormones
buffy coat: white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets
hematocrit: red blood cells
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Blood plasma
90% water
three main proteins:
- albumin: prevents water from diffusing out of blood vessels
- globulins: include antibodies and blood proteins that transport lipids, iron, and copper
- fibrinogen: one of the molecules involved in chemical reactions for blood clotting
*all produced by the liver*
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Erythrocytes
aka red blood cells
bi-concave disc
oxygen transporting cells
*originate from bone marrow*
no organelles or nuclei
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RBC
carry oxygen carrying hemoglobin; bears four chains of amino acids that bears an iron atom that are used as binding sites for oxygen
pick up oxygen at lung capillaries and released them at tissue capillaries
oxidation of iron atoms of hemoglobin gives blood its red color
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Disorders of erythrocytes
1. polycythemia: abnormal excess of erythrocytes
- from a cancer of bone marrow
2. anemia: low concentrations of hemoglobin
3. sickle cell: inherited condition, defective hemoglobin molecule
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Tibetan and Andean
Tibetan: lower concentration of hemoglobin, higher ventilation rate and muscle capillary density
Andean: higher hemoglobin concentrations
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What are leukocytes? its function? Origin?
aka WBC
originate in bone marrow
protect the body from infectious disease/microorganisms
function in loose connective tissue
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What is diapedesis vs ameboid for leukocytes?
diapedesis is circulating leukocytes leave the capillaries
ameboid movement is the formation of flowing cytoplasmic extensions after WBC leave capillaries
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What are the two groups of five leukocytes?
group one: Granulocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
group two: Agranulocytes
- lymphocytes
- monocytes
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Most abundant to least abundant leukocytes?
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils
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what are neutrophils?
-most numerous
-pick up acidic and basic stains
-attracted by bacterial products and first line of defense in inflammatory response
-phagocytize bacteria, destroy bacteria, releasing enzymes into extra cellular matrix of infected disease
-pus = dead neutrophils + other leukocytes + tissue debris + dead bacteria
looks like smiley face
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what are eosinophils?
Represent 1–4% of all WBCs
• large and stain red
• Play a role in ending allergic
reactions by phagocytizing allergens
• Digest and destroy invading parasite
(gather in the wall of GI)
looks like two dots in a WBC
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what are basophils?
about 0.5% of all leukocytes
- nucleus - usually two lobes
- secrete histamines
- meditate inflammation during allergies and parasitic infections
- direct later stages of inflammation in allergies and parasitic infections
looks like a swollen WBC
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what are lymphocytes?
20-45% of all WBC
most important cells of the immune system
acts against a specific foreign molecule (antigen)
two classes of lymphocytes:
T cells: attack foreign bodies
B cells: differentiate and produce antibodies
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What rate monocytes?
4-8% of WBC
largest leukocytes
transform into macrophages
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What are platelets main function?
*help initial clotting*
signal vasoconstriction
plug tears in blood vessels
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What is hematopoiesis?
process by which blood cells are formed
located in bone marrow, spleen, liver
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what are the types of bone marrow?
red marrow: actively generating new blood cells
yellow marrow: dormant, makes blood cells only in emergencies
at birth all marrow is red
in adults, only red marrow is present at trabeculae of spongy bone of axial skeleton, girdles, and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur, yellow is present at all other regions of long bones
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bone marrow has what type of tissue
reticular connective tissue
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What is blood sinusoids?
mature blood cells enter the blood stream through endothelial cells of sinusoids
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what cell originates all blood cells
hemopoietic blood stem cells
- which produces progenitor cells that produces
- lymphoid stem cells: produces lymphocytes
- myeloid stem cells: produces all other blood cells
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what is Leukemia
a form of cancer, classified as lymphoblastic or myeloblastic
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Pulmonary Circuit
right side receives oxygen poor blood from the body and pumps it into the lungs
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Systemic circuit
left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it throughout the body
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what does the atria do?
receives blood from pulmonary systemic circuits
192
what do ventricles do?
pumping chambers of the heart
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dextrocardia
congenital anomaly
apex of heart is misplaced to the right
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what is the thoracic cavity?
it is the mediastinum
from sternum to costal cartilages to thoracic vertebrae
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what is the pericardium?
it is a fibrous membrane that covers the heart and the beginning of the great vessels
196
what is serous membrane?
consists of parietal and visceral pericardium
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what is pericardial cavity?
space between parietal pericardium (closer to thoracic walls) and visceral pericardium (epicardium)
198
what is pericardiocentesis?
drainage of fluid from the pericardial cavity
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hemopericardium
blood in the pericardial cavity
200
cardiac tamponade
heart volume is increasingly compromised by the fluid inside the pericardial cavity
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heart wall layers?
epicardium (visceral pericardium)
myocardium: cardiac muscle (arranged in circular and spiral patterns)
endocardium: lines the internal walls of the heart
- *simple squamous epithelium*
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the myocardium consists of
bundles of cardiac muscle cells surrounded by bound by connective tissue, cardiac skeleton, which reinforces the myocardium internally and anchors the cardiac muscle fibers
function: squeezes blood through the heart
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Cardiac Muscle tissue is?
striated like skeletal muscle
204
Myocardium is connected by what? and separated by what?
connected by intercalated discs; where fasciae adherens bind adjacent cells and transmit contractile force as well as gap junctions that transmit contractile signal to adjacent cells
separated by endomysium, which contain blood vessels and nerves
205
types of heart beat?
systole: contraction of a heart chamber
diastole: expansion of a heart chamber
*left ventricle has the thickest myocardium*
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Right Atrium?
receives oxygen poor blood from systemic circuit (IVC, SVC, and coronary sinus)
AV valves open to fill ventricle
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Right Ventricle?
receives blood from right atrium
pumps blood into pulmonary circuit through pulmonary trunk (via pulmonary semilunar valve)
208
Valve between atria and ventricle?
Right: atrioventricular (AV)
contains: trabeculae, papillary muscles, and chordae tendineae
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Left Atrium
makes up hearts posterior surface aka base
receives oxygen rich blood from lungs through pulmonary veins (4)
opens into left ventricle via AV valve (Mitral)
210
left ventricle?
forms apex of the heart
internal walls: trabeculae carneae, papillary muscles, chordae tendineae
