midterm 2 Flashcards
(343 cards)
1
Q
bony fish
A
Osteichthyes
2
Q
sharks and rays
A
Chondrichthyes
3
Q
Devonian period
A
The Age of the Fishes
4
Q
chordate subphyla on the way to fish
A
Urochordata (tunicates/ascidians)
5
Q
chordate subphyla on the way to fish
A
Cephalochordata
(“amphioxus”)
6
Q
from middle Cambrian Burgess Shale is strikingly similar to living amphioxus and is
regarded as one of the oldest fossil chordates
A
Pikaia
7
Q
jawless fish
A
Agnatha
8
Q
clade of chordate animals with a skull of hard bone or cartilage
A
craniates
9
Q
Lagerstätten in China
A
Chengjiang
10
Q
suggested by flattened shape and heavy external armour
A
slow, bottom-grubbing fish
11
Q
Jawed Fish
A
Gnathostomes
12
Q
first jawed fish
A
Acanthodians
13
Q
heavily armoured fish
A
Placoderms
14
Q
Sarcopterygians, type of jawed bony fish that was very important in the Devonian
A
lobefins
15
Q
most commonly called tetrapodomorphs, an extinct group
that evolved into tetrapods
A
rhipidistians
16
Q
preserved complex of mountains, lowlands with lakes and rivers, and shallow seas produced by collision of North America and Europe in the Devonian
A
Old Red Sandstone
17
Q
preadaptation of sarcopterygians; originally evolved as an adaptation to avoid suffocating when they estivated in drying out riverbeds; useful in air breathing during transition to land
A
lungs
18
Q
preadaptation of sarcopterygians; originally meant for increased maneuverability in the water; move independently of one another which helped in moving on land - became limbs
A
lobe fins
19
Q
molecular phylogeny shows land plants were probably derived from
A
green algae
20
Q
terrestrial plant life is dominated by
= bryophytes + vascular plants
A
embryophytes
21
Q
polyphyletic group comprising liverworts, hornworts and mosses; have thin-walled, water-conducting cells but lack xylem
A
bryophytes
22
Q
show more advanced features, permit growth upwards and maintain their photosynthetic
platform (=leaves) well above the ground
A
vascular plants
23
Q
oldest evidence for terrestrial plant life (from Ordovician)
A
cryptospores
24
Q
oldest vascular plant from the Middle Silurian
A
Cooksonia
25
earliest true vascular plants
Rhyniophytes
26
second stage in plant evolution (more xylem, attempts at leaves)
Trimerophytes
27
Devonian small ground cover, shrubs, and small trees
Lycopods
28
contain secondary xylem
Progymnosperms
29
oldest known true forest
Gilboa, Catskills NY state
30
spore-bearing with feathery leaves
Ferns
31
ranged from low ground-cover to trees 10m high
Horsetails
32
first gymnosperms
Seed Ferns
33
plants bearing a naked seed, i.e. not encased in ovaries
gymnosperms
34
seed fern from Gondwana
Glossopteris
35
basal tetrapods
Ichthyostega and Acanthostega
36
show a superb mixture of fish and tetrapod
features
Tiktaalik
37
earliest tetrapods; primitive amphibians with rough leathery skin
Temnnospondyls
38
Carboniferous apex predator; amphibian
Watcheeria
39
reptiles, mammals and birds grouped together; a clade of tetrapod vertebrates
that lay their eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the mother
amniotes
40
development of this permitted true colonization of the land
cleidoic egg
41
location of earliest true reptiles Hylonomus from Carboniferous
Joggins, Nova Scotia
42
no fenestrae (earliest reptiles)
anapsid
43
one fenestra (pecyosaurs , therapsids and mammals)
synapsid
44
2 fenestrae (most reptiles, all dinosaurs and birds)
diapsid
45
early forms of what became mammals; used sail for thermoregulation
pelycosaurids
46
best known were sail-back reptile
Dimetrodon
47
dominate Late Permian faunas
and ecosystem; replaced pelycosaurids
therapsids
48
the ability to produce their own heat and control
their body temperature
thermoregulation
49
ability to modify their temperature at
least partially
partial endotherms
50
use of sail back on pelycosaurs
enhanced solar heating
51
greatest extinction in Earth histor
terminal Permian extinction; the great dying
52
immense decrease in floral biomass caused boundary to be marked by
coal gap
53
largest
Phanerozoic volcanic deposits on Earth
Siberian traps
54
life forms immediately following extinction
disaster biota
55
increasing biomass and diversity after Permian extinction
recovery phase
56
taxa same as pre-extinction forms
Lazarus taxa
57
convergent with pre-
extinction taxa
Elvis taxa
58
new evolutionary innovations appear after Permian extinction
expansion phase
59
group including thecodonts, crocodiles, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs
archosaurs
60
animals with a sprawling posture cannot breathe and run at
the same time
Carrier’s Constraint
61
stem group of the archosaurs that utilized all three postures
thecodonts
62
top carnivores of freshwater ecosystems of Triassic
parasuchids
63
top carnivores of the terrestrial realm of Triassic
crocodiles
64
small saurischian theropods of Triassic
Eoraptor
65
due to massive volcanism associated with the opening of the North
Atlantic Ocean
end-Triassic extinction
66
shows that speed increases with increased mass up to 100 kg
scaling taking inertia into account
67
smaller animals to be
towards the middle of the herd
social structuring
68
length of stride/leg length
relative stride length
69
v^2/gl
dimensionless speed
70
most dinosaurs were travelling at
ambling speeds around 0.5m/sec (2-5 km/hour)
71
faster speeds are shown in the dinosaur stampede at
Winton, Australia
72
smaller dinosaurs were racing at (during stampede in Winton)
3-5 m/sec (11-20 km/hour)
73
argued that dinosaurs were
warm blooded and presented several lines of evidence to back up his claim
Bob Bakker
74
able to maintain a constant body
temperature
Endotherms (partly equivalent to homeotherms)
75
receive their body heat entirely from external sources
Ectotherms (partly equivalent to poikilotherms
76
produce their own body heat, but
are not able to fully overcome the effects of external temperature changes
Partial endotherms
77
maintain temperature despite reduced metabolic rates simply by virtue of their large size
Inertial homeotherms (= Gigantotherms)
78
rapid early growth to maximum
size then no growth for the rest of their life
determinate growth
79
growth continues until death
indeterminate growth
80
compact bone of most modern endotherms rich in vascular structures
osteons
81
in nasal passages of modern endotherms that increase
the area over which blood and moist tissues are exposed to air
nasal turbinates
82
feathered dinosaur
Sinosauropteryx
83
three tetrapod groups have ever evolved flapping flight
pterosaurs, birds, and bats
84
(Darwin’s chief advocate) proposed that birds evolved from dinosaurs
Thomas Huxley
85
-3-fingered hand
-clavicles fused to form proto-wishbone (furcula)
tenanurid dinosaurs
86
represent the last dinosaurian stage
before birds
Maniraptorid dinosaurs
87
for flexibility in slashing attacks (permitted
flapping and ultimately flight)
half-moon-shaped wristbone
88
symmetric and hence were most likely used for maneuverability and
display
plumose feathers
89
The first bird
Archaeopteryx
90
location of first bird
Solenhofen Limestone of Germany
91
conifers, cycads and ginkgos
gymnosperms
92
ancestral spruce, pine, etc.
conifers
93
palm-like leaves with a prominant central seed-cone
cycads
94
“living fossil” that is unchanged since the Paleozoic
ginkgo
95
animals and land plants aided the pollination and seed dispersal of plants
vector transport
96
astropods, bivalves,
scleractinian corals, echinoids, bony fish, and marine reptiles
modern fauna
97
(coiled cephalopods) were the most abundant swimming invertebrates, medium-
level carnivores
ammonites
98
(cigar-shaped squidlike cephalopods) also extremely common in Mesozoic marine ecosystems
belemnites
99
large marine reptiles (Diorama #11)
that solved Carriers Constraint in the oceans
sauropterigians
100
small dolphin-like, agile, fish-eating reptiles. Gave birth to live
young at sea
ichthyosaurs
101
were up to 12 m long; long-necked with 4 paddle-like fins.
Mainly fish-eaters that gave birth to live young at sea
plesiosaurs
102
were large sea-going monitor lizards; redators that ate fish, other
reptiles, and ammonites. They also gave birth at sea
mosasaurs
103
most advanced therapsids
cynodonts
104
group of early stem-group mammaliformes
morganucodontids
105
most primitive living mammals
monotremes (protherians)
106
marsupials and placentals
therian mammals
107
give birth to immature young that then develop in the mother’s pouch
marsupials (metatherians)
108
have a longer gestation period and give birth to more fully formed young
placentals (eutherians)
109
end of Mesozoic extinction event
terminal Cretaceous event
110
huge volcanic complex almost exactly the same age as
the terminal Cretaceous extinction
Deccan Traps
111
large extraterrestrial bodies
bolides
112
reported iridium anomaly in Italy
Walter Alvarez
113
quartz crystals with defects characteristic of impact
shocked quartz
114
impact crater has now been identified
Chicxulub on Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
115
best exposed evidence of bolide impact
Hell Creek Formation of Montana
116
sudden appearance of massive amounts of fern spores
fern spike
117
Eocene life is exemplified by the Fossil Forest on
Axel Heiberg Island and Messel in Germany
118
coastal terrestrial dweller, ancestor of whale
Pakicetus
119
large shoreline carnivores that were capable of functioning both on land and in rivers and streams, ancestor of whale
Ambulocetus
120
fully formed whales (albeit with tiny vestigial hind limbs); obligate swimmers
Basilosaurus
121
evolved from toothed ancestors (whales)
baleen whales
122
elongate cells that form pipes for water flow
xylem
123
elongate cells that transports sugars from photosynthesis to roots and stem
phloem
124
to bring oxygen to roots and carbon dioxide to leaves
intercellular gas transport tubes
125
structural material that adds strength to xylem
lignin
126
first vascular plants best known from where
Rhynie Chert, Scotland
127
flowering plants, dominant today, tough outer coat around seed
angiosperms
128
fossil bed of feathered dinosaurs from Cretaceous
Liaoning Province, China
129
most common Mesozoic mammal
multituberculates
130
fossil beds with marsupials and placentals found where
Jehol (Liaoning, China)
131
can help to determine relative age in any single section
superposition
132
strata are deposited in horizontal layers that are parallel with each other
Law of Original
Horizontality
133
strata are continuous over lateral distance
Law of Original Continuity
134
can build up a composite section that shows all
the rock strata in the region in their proper relative ages
correlation (of rock sections)
135
subdivision of geologic time using divisions based on their fossil content
biostratigraphy
136
radioactive isotope used in dating
radioisotopes
137
feature of radioisotopes used to determine age
half life
138
organic fossils <60,000 years old can be dated directly using
C 14 dating
139
highly
precise, with analytical errors less than 1 million years on volcanic minerals more than a
billion years old (dating)
U/Pb dating
140
the major unifying theme in earth science
plate tectonics
141
first proposed idea of continental drift
Alfred Wegener
142
geological feature down the center of the Atlantic
mid-ocean ridge
143
magnetic directions recorded
in rocks to determine the latitude at which the rocks were formed (used to prove plate tectonics theory)
paleomagnetics
144
oceanic crust is constantly being created at the mid-ocean ridges and consumed in
subduction zones
145
continental breakup begins as a
Rift Valley
146
spreading of continental plates produces a
linear sea
147
oceans are transitory features that are created and destroyed as mega/super continents alternately
form and then disperse
Wilson cycle
148
represents a second wave of major impacts that
would have sterilized the upper oceans
Late Heavy Bombardment
149
sun only 75% as bright
faint young sun
150
Formation of Simple Organic Molecules experiment
Miller-Urey Experiment
151
model for early life where proteins are the first complex molecules synthesized
proteinworld
152
model for early life where RNA are the first complex molecules synthesized
RNA-world
153
experiment shows that self-replicating living systems can consist of
little more than a short strand of RNA
Spiegelman Monster
154
performed the same experiment (Spiegelman experiment) but without providing a living organism as a seed
Eigen
155
Spiegelman Monster and Miller-Urey Experiment are examples of
evolution in a test tube
156
reports of possible fossil life on Mars shown by
Martian Meteorite
157
Archaea and Bacteria typical of very hot and acidic waters
archea
158
model spanning all life
universal tree of life
159
occur in areas having high heat fluxes both on continents, near convergent plate boundaries, and on the ocean floor, near the mid-ocean ridges
hydrothermal systems
160
less deformed rocks contain Earth's oldest definite fossils
Pilbara Craton of Western Australia and Barberton in South Africa
161
filaments and spheres of carbon that reflect the cell walls of unicellular organisms
organic microfossils
162
where oldest microfossils formed (disproves Darwin's theory of a warm little pond)
volcanic caldera
163
extreme environment where modern stromatolites thrive
Shark's Bay Australia
164
Proterozoic is known as the age of the
stromatolites
165
on the north shore of Lake Superior (nearly 2 Ga) is the most important and
famous Early Proterozoic fossil locality
Gunflint Chert
166
indicate that iron was in a
reduced state in the oceans
banded iron formations
167
cannot tolerate oxygen
anaerobic
168
used O2 if available, otherwise use anaerobic pathways
amphiaerobic
169
fixes carbon dioxide (CO2) and liberates oxygen (O2) as a byproduct of metabolism
photosynthesis
170
formed in the immediate vicinity of cyanobacterial concentrations during the iron ocean stage
oxygen oases
171
first stage in oxidation event
iron ocean
172
second stage in oxidation event
canfield ocean
173
atmosphere, shallow ocean, and deep ocean all oxygenated
modern ocean
174
The transition from an oxygen-free world to one with limited oxygen in the atmosphere and shallow seas
great oxidation event
175
shielded Earth from UV radiation
ozone layer
176
utilizes oxygen pathways
aerobic
177
organisms whose cells have a membrane-bound nucleus
eukaryotes
178
suggested that eukaryotes
represent a endosymbiosis
Lynn Margulis
179
organic microfossils with large size and complex ridges or spines
architarchs
180
probably represent multicellular algae
of unknown groups
algal compressions
181
represent the
oldest complex algae showing cellular structure
red algae
182
ancestors of land plants
green algae
183
sister group to the animals
fungi
184
roots of this record the massive continental collisions that produced Rodinia
Grenville mountains
185
breakup of Rodinia produced an ice age called
snowball earth
186
biological events and processes that have driven the course of life on our
planet
evolution
187
total amount of genetic information coded on all the individuals in the population
gene pool
188
genetic information of an individual is coded as a series of nucleotides
DNA
189
change in one or more nucleotides on the DNA
mutation
190
“survival of the fittest” during the competition for food, living space and mates + avoidance of
predators
natural selection
191
examples of survival of the fittest
pepper moth and Darwin's finches
192
similar life habit in a similar environment leads to the
evolution of similar morphology among organisms that are completely unrelated
convergence
193
convergent structures
analogous
194
example of an analogous structure that evolved five times in placental and marsupial mammals, and therapsid reptiles
sabre-tooth
195
organisms evolve as a response to changes in their environment, but also in response to
evolutionary changes in other organisms
coevolution
196
evolutionary competition between predator and prey
arms race
197
a relationship between two species that is beneficial to both
mutualism
198
theory that species must constantly evolve or
they will go extinct
red queen effect by van valen
199
biological classification of organisms must reflect evolutionary history
phylogeny
200
unicellular, lack a cell nucleus or organelles
prokaryotes
201
distinguished mainly on differences in DNA and proteins
domains
202
mostly “normal” prokaryotes
bacteria
203
mostly “extremophile” prokaryotes
archea
204
includes all single and multi-celled eukaryotes
eukarya
205
based on hierarchy proposed by Carl von Linné
linnean classification (know classification)
206
a group of organisms believed to have evolved from a common ancestor
clade
207
common ancestor and all its descendents
monophyletic group
208
more than one ancestor which evolved separately from different groups
polyphyletic group
209
common ancestor but does
not include all descendents
paraphyletic groups
210
relating to original ancestoral features =pleisiomorphies
basal
211
first appear in the clade =apomorphies
derived
212
shows the order of evolutionary appearance of derived characters
cladogram
213
provides a "ruler" to measure the time of origin of different clades
molecular clock
214
remains of ancient organisms
fossils
215
what bones are made of
phosphate
216
conditions of fossilization
taphonomy
217
what shells are made of
carbonate
218
shells leave these in rocks
molds
219
composed of complex sugar
cellulose
220
when wood's pores are filled with silica (produces quartz)
petrified
221
deposits of fossils with preserved soft tissues are known as
fossil Lagerstatten
222
the process by which chemicals present in organic matter are decomposed or oxidized into easily available forms to plants
mineralization
223
fossilized pine tar
amber
224
most visible fossils represent
preserved hard parts
225
provide information about fossil behaviour
trace fossils
226
period of global glaciation at 635 Ma
Marinoan glaciation
227
the youngest
Proterozoic glacial deposits worldwide
gaskiers glaciation (580 Ma)
228
the world’s first
large soft-bodied eukaryote
when life got big
229
oldest Ediacaran fossils known anywhere, found near
Mistaken Point
230
mistaken point dominated by highly fractal forms called (ediacaran fronds)
rangeomorphs
231
failed experiment in evolution
extinct clade
232
how ediacaran organisms fed without mouths
suspension feeding
233
taking dissolved chemicals out of seawater
osmotrophy
234
forms with segmentation and bilateral symmetry interpreted as mobile bilaterian that grazed on microbial mats (stem group bilaterians)
Dickinsonia and Kimberella
235
primitive examples of simple crown-group animals signified what age
dawn of animal life
236
proposed that all Ediacaran taxa are more similar to each other than they are to any living organisms
Dolf Seilacher
237
Dolf Seichlacher named this single eukaryotic group as
Vendobionta
238
ancestral taxa that eventually evolved into more recent organisms
stem group
239
shown by fronds of extinct clades above sea bottom that are similar to modern communities of suspension feeders
tiering
240
another term for ediacaran biota
garden of ediacara
241
wide variety of animals burst onto the evolutionary scene after Ediacaran extinction
Cambrian explosion
242
profound and rapid diversification event
evolutionary radiation
243
internal fluid-
filled cavity
coelome
244
have a coelome
coelomates
245
collection of species composed of the living representatives of the collection
crown group
246
a primitive sedentary aquatic invertebrate with a soft porous body
sponges
247
first skeletal reef-
builders, went extinct at the end of the Early Cambrian
archaeocyathan
248
shell fossils from Cambrian
small shelly fossils
249
have a soft unsegmented body and live in aquatic or damp habitats
molluscs
250
small shelly fossil that had spines that armoured the body
sclerites
251
type of marine invertebrate with shells that have two valves attached along a hinge
Brachiopods
252
invertebrate group dominant in Cambrian
Arthropods
253
extinct marine arthropod with segmented hind part divided into three lobes
trilobite
254
stem groups arthropods known from Burgess Scale
Marella and Anomalocaris
255
fossil-bearing deposit of hard and soft bodied Cambrian fossils in British Columbia, Canada
burgess scale
256
marine invertebrate animals with a five part symmetrical body
echinoderm
257
consists of animals with a flexible rod supporting their dorsal or back sides from Cambrian
chordates
258
Cambrian burrows show consistent, complex patterns that are repeated worldwide and
probably reflect behavioural coding on the genome
when life got smart
259
evolutionary development of increasingly sophisticated armour
and weapons in Cambrian
Cambrian arms race
260
caused by the Cambrian arms race
agronomic revolution
261
cycles of assembly of continents
supercontinent cycle
262
characterized by ice-covered poles, narrow climatic belts, and low sea
levels
icehouse climate
263
characterized by broad tropical belts, warm temperate conditions to the poles, and high sea levels
greenhouse climate
264
analysis of this helped to illustrate history of Neogene cooling
oxygen isotope
analyses
265
divided all Phanerozoic marine animals into three overlapping Evolutionary
Faunas
Sepkoski
266
Cambrian, paleozoic, modern faunas are called
evolutionary faunas
267
Cambrian fauna were categorized as
mud grubbers
268
evolution of these new paleozoic faunas
armoured filter feeds and pelagic predators
269
established the Paleozoic Evolutionary Fauna
Ordovician radiation
270
significant and geologically instantaneous drops in diversity
mass extinction
271
>50% family extinction;
major extinction
272
10-50% family extinction
intermediate
273
3-10% family extinction
lesser extinction
274
areas with distinct biotas
biogeographic provinces
275
shallow seas that covered most of North America in the Ordovician
epeiric seas
276
analogous to terrarium thicket
fringing reef
277
tidal zones in the Ordovician
supratidal and intertidal flats
278
a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains
trophic web
279
easily categorized ways of life that have evolved repeatedly among different taxonomic
group
guilds
280
largest carnivorous land mammal ever, present in the cenozoic
Mesonychids
281
small to mid-range ferret-, cat-, dog-, and wolverine-type carnivores
creodonts
282
an order of mammals with powerful jaws and adapted teeth
carnivora
283
knock down trees to eat the leaves, prevents trees from growing, preserves savannah ecosystem
megaherbivores
284
eat different levels of grass in savannahs
grazers
285
long necks, eat from the tops of trees
browsers
286
animals that feed on a mixture of foods
mixed feeders
287
stabbing and bone crushing predators
carnivores
288
extensive extinctions amongst the archaic mammals in the Eocene-Oligocene boundary
la grande coupure
289
even-toed ungulates
artiodactyls
290
odd-toed ungulates
perissodactyls
291
perrisodactyls that were exceptionally large herbivores
titanotheres and chalicotheres and Indricotherium
292
miocene was the
age of horses
293
ancestor of modern horses
Hyracotherium
294
made up of silica eliminated grazers with short teeth and favoured long-toothed grazers
C4 grasses
295
long toothed grazers
hypsodont
296
evolved in Africa and includes all modern elephants
Afrotheria
297
evolved in South America and includes all modern sloths, armadillos, and South American anteaters
Xenarthra
298
placental clades from he northern continents of
Europe + Asia + North America
Boreoeutheria
299
superb record of mammal evolution here
Riversleigh Australia
300
mammals migrated freely between North and South American continents
the Great American Interchange
301
early branch off from primate lineage
plesiadapids
302
lemur-like forms in primate evolution
adapsids
303
tarsier-like forms in primate evolution
omomyids
304
Biological order that comprises prosimans, monkeys, apes, among which humans
primates
305
monkeys + apes, evolved from tarsier like forms
Anthropoids
306
near the common ancestor of the apes and the Old World monkeys
Aegyptopithecus
307
classic representative of the Homonoidea
Proconsul
308
Chimpanzees
pan
309
all primates more similar to Homo than to chimpanzees
hominins
310
caused by Arabia drifting away from Africa
East African Rift
311
the first find of australopithecines
Taung child
312
where the first find of australopithecines was found
Raymond dart
313
oldest generally accepted hominin
Sahelanthropus
314
relatively complete female skeleton; oldest partial hominin skeleton known anywhere
ardi
315
faculative biped who was equally adept on
the ground or in the trees
Ardipithecus
316
can walk but doesn’t do it all the time
facultative biped
317
active grasping and climbing for primates
palmigrade climbing
318
using knuckles as walking support
knuckle walking
319
climbing by propelling body from tree to tree
tree swinging
320
nearly complete skeleton of gracile australopithicines
Lucy
321
australopithicines subdivision groups
gracile and robust
322
robust australopithicines commonly placed in what genus
Paranthropus
323
where walking or running on two legs is the primary method of locomotion
obligate biped
324
trackway showing bipedal locomotion
Laetoli
325
first possible controversial tool appearance
Lomekwian
326
oldest reasonably complete skeletons - of a facultative biped who was equally adept on the ground and in trees
Ardipithecus
327
obligate biped that lived mainly on the ground and had
a mainly vegetarian diet including considerable roughage
Australopithecus
328
hammerstones and simple flakes tools used by homo
Oldowan
329
hand axes show deliberate manufacture, represent the world’s first permanent tools
Acheulean
330
states that different populations of H. erectus in Africa, Europe,
central Asia and SE Asia maintained some genetic interchange, and eventually evolved into
the different races of H. sapiens
multiregional theory
331
states that H. sapiens evolved in Africa. All hominid populations living outside Africa were evolutionary dead ends that went
extinct about the time that H. sapiens spread out of Africa
monogenesis "out of Africa theory"
332
more sophisticated tools used by Neanderthals
Mousterian
333
bone dictating capacity of speech
hyoid
334
represent a parallel clade of extinct humans, but are known almost entirely from
molecular data
Denisovans
335
complex tool used by Homo sapiens
Aurignacian
336
life is affected by major physical perturbations which cause accelerated evolutionary response
court jester effect (by Barnowsky)
337
species living on the edges of the Namib Desert that does not knock down trees
the desert elephant
338
top cambrian predator of the seas
Anomalocaris
339
top paleozoic predator
cephalopod
340
top predator of the devonian
placoderms
341
first amniote to return to water
mesosaurus
342
top predators of the Permian
shelled cephalopds and sharks
343
