1
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Rise of Persia” in the textbook. How did Persia rise to power?
A
- Persians were Indo-European people, came from the north and occupied mineral-rich territory by Early Iron age
- Persia rose to power under leadership of Cyrus II, conquered many cities and made them loyal, called ‘satrapies’ (provinces) of Persian empire
- Most important satrapie was Lydia, wealthy city with coinage innovation, demonstrated military power and intellect when captured by Cyrus II
- Darius I succeeded Cyrus II and created organization, centralization among empire
- Military strength, administrative power, etc. made Persia a very powerful empire
2
Q
There is a sub-heading called “Persia Before Darius” in the textbook. Talk about two key points in this time period?
A
- Cyrus II ruled before Darius I
- Captured Lydia, ruled by Croesus, which was a wealthy and powerful city
- Lydia’s capture established much more significant control over Asia minor for Persian empire and demonstrated military power/tactics
3
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Achievements of Darius” in the textbook. What were Darius’ achievements?
A
- Administrative reform (empire divided into satrapies, each controlled by a satrap, taxation)
- Centralized capital (Persepolis)
- Currency (‘Darics’, standard weights/measures)
- Infrastructure (road networks, trade routes)
- Expanded military
- Legal policies (codified laws, promoted diverse cultural practices to avoid inner-empire conflicts)
4
Q
In the lecture, there is a point called “the eyes and ears of the king”. Which king and what did this mean?
A
- Spy network used to discourage rebellions
- Darius I was the king that started it, but it lasted for much longer than his reign
- Underscored administrative power of the empire
5
Q
What is Zoroastrianism
A
- One of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions
- Founded by the prophet Zarathustra in ancient Persia
- Became the dominant religion of the Achaemenid Empire
6
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Ionian Revolt” in the textbook. Why and how did the Ionian Greeks revolt? What was the result?
A
Why?
- Ionia was satropy of Persian Empire
- Taxes went up a lot
- Persia imposed tyrants to take control and they didn’t like them
How?
- Revolt was led by Aristogoras, tyrant of Miletus
- Athens sent 20 ships since they liked Aristogoras’ ideas which played a critical role in capturing/burning city of Sardis
Result?
- Persian king Darius I suppressed revolt systematically over years
- Ended in 494 BC at the Battle of Lade, city near Miletus
- Increased tensions between Persian empire and Greek territories
- Darius I determined to punish Athens and Eritrea for helping
- Led to first Persian invasion of Greece and the start of the Greco-Persian wars
7
Q
There is a sub-heading called “Darius’ Invasion of Greece” in the textbook. Why and how did he invade Greece? What was the result?
A
Why?
- Because of Ionian revolt and Athens/Eritrea’s assistance in the rebellion
How?
- Started with first fleet under son-in-law Mardonius’ control, which failed aside from recapturing Thrace, Thasos, and Macedonia
- Second expedition launched to target Athens and Eritrea directly
- Captured Eritrea and deported residents, then moved down to Marathon
Result?
- Persia actually lost the battle of Marathon to Athens
- Major setback to Darius I
8
Q
Who is Themistocles
A
- Key advocate for shifting the selection of archons (high-ranking officials) to a lottery system
- Diminished political influence of aristocratic elites and elevated the importance of the strategoi (generals), including Themistocles himself, elected based on merit rather than chance or privilege
- Utilized ostracism (exile people perceived as threats to the state)
- Used wealth from silver mines to fund construction of fleet of triremes (transition from land-based hoplite army to naval supremacy)
9
Q
What is a trireme
A
- Big Athenian warship
- Three rows of oars (‘tri’-eme)
- Made Athens a maritime empire
10
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. Tell me about it and what was the reaction of the Greek poleis.
A
- Invasion of Xerxes, son of Darius, was Persia attempting to subjugate Greece after failure of Darius’ invasion a decade earlier
- Amassed enormous army/navy, unprecedented in scale, aiming to overwhelm Greek resistance
Greek poleis reaction:
- Poleis deeply divided
- Some, like Thessaly and Thebes, submitted to Persia by offering “earth and water”
- Others, such as Athens and Sparta, committed to resisting Persian domination
- Unity was tenuous, with disagreements over strategy and leadership among the Greek city-states.
- Coalition of Greek states, including Athens, Sparta, and Corinth, formed Hellenic League to coordinate defence
- Leadership of alliance was given to Sparta (superior land forces), Athens provided backbone of naval forces
11
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. What was the Greek strategy?
A
- Greeks decided to defend at Thermopylae (narrow mountain pass, would neutralize numerical advantage of Persian forces)
- Greek navy also planned to block Persian fleet at Artemisium, ensuring Xerxes’ land forces would not be supported by sea
- Aimed to delay/weaken Xerxes’ forces, giving themselves time to prepare for decisive naval confrontation
12
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. Describe the battle of Thermopylae. Who was Leonidas and the 300 Spartans
A
Battle of Thermopylae:
- For two days, Greeks successfully held off Xerxes’ army, exploiting narrow pass to negate Persian advantage in numbers
- Local traitor, Ephialtes, betrayed Greeks by revealing mountain path that allowed Persian forces to outflank them.
Leonidas and 300 Spartans:
- King Leonidas of Sparta led a force of approximately 7,000 Greeks, including his legendary 300 Spartans, to hold the pass at Thermopylae
- Spartans trained for war from childhood
- Leonidas dismissed most of the Greek forces, leaving a small contingent, including the 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, to cover retreat.
- The defenders fought to the last man, inflicting significant casualties on the Persians and demonstrating unparalleled bravery and resolve.
13
Q
There is a sub-heading called “The Battle of Salamis” in the textbook. Tell me about the context leading to the battle, the battle itself, and the result.
A
Context:
- After Persian victory at Thermopylae, Persian forces sacked Athens and destroyed Acropolis while Greek navy fled to Salamis
- Themistocles advocated for naval battle in confined waters of Salamis despite some Greek states (Peloponnesians) preferred otherwise (narrow straits negates numerical advantage, manoeuvrable triemes would be better)
Battle:
- Themistocles sent secret message to Xerxes suggesting Greeks planned to flee, convincing Xerxes to go to Salamis waters to find them
- Occurred on September 29, 480 BCE
- Triemes rammed and boarded Persian ships
- Themistocles commanded Greek forces while Xerxes observed battle from a throne
- Greeks won despite nearly half the fleet, Persian losses were catastrophic
Aftermath:
- Greeks felt unified, underscored importance of Athens and its navy in its defence of Greece
- Themistocles emerged as a hero, naval power idea was validated
14
Q
What is Hellenocentrism
A
- Started in 480 BCE
- Belief that Greek civilization was superior to all others, emerged more strongly during and after the Persian invasions
- Greeks viewed their political systems, art, philosophy, and way of life as pinnacle of human achievement
- Believed superiority of the Greek polis (city-state) model over Persian monarchical and bureaucratic system
15
Q
Describe the start of the Classical Period
A
- Defeat of Persians at battles like Salamis and victory at Plataea marked a turning point in Greek history and culture
- Survival of Greece in face of Persian aggression often seen as the beginning of the Classical Period
- Great achievements in art, philosophy, drama, politics, and science
- Greek victories fostered sense of shared identity and pride, laying the groundwork for the flourishing of democracy in Athens and the development of philosophical thought led by figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
- Classical Period often seen as era in which Greek civilization reached cultural zenith
16
Q
Describe the Battle of Plataea (context, battle, aftermath)
A
Context:
- Xerxes withdrew after failed invasion of Greece, much smaller force now
- Sparta took lead in organizing defence
- Xerxes pawned off remaining army to Mardonius
Battle:
- Persian army now significantly outnumbered
- Greek army now led by Pausanias, consisted mainly of hoplites
- Battlefield was plain, hoplites strong, Persian cavalry less effective on this terrain
- Greeks beat Persians, Mardonius killed in battle
Aftermath:
- End of Persian threat
- Greek city-states used to be fragmented, now unified
- Still an evident rivalry between Athens and Sparta, both city-states would continue to vie for leadership, eventually leading to the Peloponnesian war
17
Q
Who were the Alcmaeonid family
A
- Powerful Athenian aristocratic family
- Often associated with significant political events/reforms, including overthrow of tyranny and support for democratic reforms
- Known for exile and later return to prominence
18
Q
Who was Cleisthenes
A
- Athenian reformer often considered father of Athenian democracy
- Reorganized political structure of Athens around the demes (local divisions)
- Created Council of Five Hundred
- Introduced ostracism to prevent tyranny
19
Q
What was the Council of Five Hundred
A
- Democratic institution in Athens established by Cleisthenes
- Composed of 500 citizens chosen by lot
- Responsible for preparing agenda for the Assembly and overseeing administrative functions
20
Q
Who was Cylon
A
- Athenian noble who attempted a coup to establish himself as a tyrant, but failed
- Massacre of his supporters due to failure
- Massacre led to political instability and curse on Alcmaeonid family
21
Q
Who was Cyrus II (aka Cyrus the Great)
A
- Founder of Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire)
- United Persian tribes
- Overthrew Median Empire
- Expanded his rule to include Lydia and Babylon
22
Q
Who was Darius I (aka Darius the Great)
A
- Persian king who expanded empire to its greatest territorial extent
- Organized empire into satrapies
- Initiated first Persian invasion of Greece, which culminated in the Battle of Marathon
23
Q
Who is Draco
A
- Early Athenian lawmaker
- Known for extremely harsh legal code
24
Q
Who is Gelon
A
- Tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily
- Played significant role in defeating Carthaginians at Battle of Himera (same time as Persian invasion of Greece)
25
Who was Harmodius and Aristogiton
- Two Athenian tyrannicides who assassinated Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)
- Became symbols of Athenian democracy and resistance against tyranny
26
Who were Hektemoroi
- Poor farmers in Athens
- Owed a sixth of their produce to wealthy landowners
- Economic struggles contributed to social unrest and eventual reforms of Solon
27
Who were Hippias and Hipparchus
- Sons of Pisistratus
- Ruled Athens as tyrants
- Hippias became a repressive ruler after assassination of Hipparchus, leading to family's overthrow
28
What was Marathon
Place in Attica where Athenians defeated a much larger Persian force in 490 BCE during first Persian invasion of Greece
29
Who were Metics
- Non-citizen residents of Athens
- Often traders or artisans
- Lacked political rights
- Required to pay taxes and serve in military
30
Who was Miltiades
- Athenian general
- Led Greek forces to victory at Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE
- Excellent strategist and leader
31
What is ostracism
- Political practice in Athens where citizens could vote to exile an individual for ten years to prevent rise of a tyrant
- Introduces as a safeguard for democracy
32
Who was Pisistratus
- Tyrant of Athens
- Implemented policies that benefited lower classes
33
Who were the Pentakosiomedimnoi
- Wealthiest class in Solon's system of social/political organization in Athens
- Eligible for highest offices due to large landholdings and agricultural production
34
What was Salamis
- Island near Athens
- Where decisive naval battle of Persian Wars was fought in 480 BCE
- Greek fleet, led by Themistocles, defeated much larger Persian fleet
35
What were Satrapies
- Administrative divisions of Persian Empire
- Governed by satraps
- Key component of empire's organizational structure
36
Who was Solon
- Reformer in Athens
- Introduced economic, political, and legal reforms to reduce social tensions
- Abolished debt slavery
37
What was Thermopylae
- Narrow pass in Greece
- 300 Spartans made heroic stand against much larger Persian army in 480 BCE, led by King Leonidas
38
Who was Xerxes
- Persian king
- Led second invasion of Greece in 480 BCE
- Oversaw battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea, ultimately leading to Persian defeat
39
Who was Pausanias
- Prominent Spartan commander
- Played crucial role in Greek victory at Battle of Plataea (479 BCE)
- Entrusted with Greek forces following this success
- Leadership style became controversial (accused of arrogance, adopting Persian customs, possibly conspiring with enemy
- Suspicions alienated allied Greek city-states and led to his eventual recall to Sparta
- Behaviour contributed to decline of Spartan leadership in Greek alliance, opening way for Athens
40
What was the Delian League, what were the terms of membership, and what were the two goals of the league
The Delian League:
- Founded 477 BCE under Athenian leadership as a coalition of Greek city-states against the Persian threat
- Represented a shift in Greek power dynamics
- Initially represented cooperative effort among Greek city-states, but eventually became tool for Athenian imperialism
- League's treasury kept at Delos (hence 'Delian')
Terms of Membership:
- Member city-states contributed either ships or money to a common treasury
- Athens often provided military resources
- Smaller states contributed financially
Two Goals of the League:
1. Defence Against Persia - Primary objective
2. Retaliation and Liberation - Aimed to continue offensive operations against Persia, particularly to free Greek cities in Asia Minor still under Persian control
41
There is a sub-heading called "From Delian League to Athenian Empire" in the textbook. Tell me about it. Touch on cleruchies and problems within the league
- Athens transformed mutual alliance into a dominion under its control
- Period saw changes in governance, military dominance, and strained relationships
Cleruchy:
- Athenian colony, but distinct from traditional colonies
- Inhabitants were Athenian citizens and effectively Athenian territory
- Served two purposes: Military outposts and economic benefits (land redistributed to poorer Athenian citizens, easing class tensions)
Problems within League:
- Forced Tribute: Initially was for defence against Persia, but became Athens demanding money from most members and centralized military resources
- Rebellions: Some cities tried to leave but Athens stopped them with their military
- Perceived Exploitation: Many cities saw Athens using them, funding things like Parthenon
- Growing Tensions
42
Talk about Cimon and the exile of Themistocles
Cimon:
- Athenian
- Advocate of maintaining good relations with Sparta and leading Delian League against Persia
Themistocles' Exile:
- Ostracized in 471 BCE
- Themistocles less favoured now due to political rivalries and accusations of pro-Persian sympathies
- Eventually sought refuge with Persia, striking reversal
- Exile marked rise of leaders like Cimon, who represented aristocratic faction and sought to expand Athenian dominance
43
What was the Helot Revolt? What were the causes and the outcome?
- Helots: State owned servant in Sparta, descendant of conquered peoples
- Helots revolted in 464 BCE following devastating earthquake
Causes:
- Earthquake destroyed much of Sparta, killed a lot of people
- Helots seized opportunity to rise against Spartan masters
Outcome:
- Revolt centred on Mount Ithome
- Sparta struggled to suppress rebellion, sought help from Athens (led by Cimon), but Spartans dismissed Athenian forces
- Revolt eventually ended but exposed Sparta's vulnerabilities, contributed to strained relations with Athens
44
Talk about the Fall of Cimon
- Ostracized in 462 BCE
- Cimon's dismissal during helot revolt undermined authority and reputation
- Rise of more radical democrats (Ephialtes/Pericles) led to shift in Athenian politics
- Ephialtes pushed reforms reducing Cimon influence
- Athenian politics became more democratic
45
Who was Pericles?
- Emerged after Cimon's ostracism
- Political reforms (mostly for lower class)
- Foreign policy (distanced Athens from Sparta, focused more on Athenian Empire/Delian League)
- Oversaw Athenian Golden Age, funding monumental projects (Parthenon), helped shape legacy of classical greece
46
Tell me about the '1st' Peloponnesian War
- Athens' conflicts with Corinth (neighbor) due to trade rivalries
- Athens built defensive walls, antagonizing
- Athens tried to support Egypt in rebellion against Persia but lost (454 BCE), then Athens took treasury of Delian league to Athens, not Delos
- "30 Years' Peace" treaty stabilized relations between Athens and Sparta (provisions were Athens kept its empire but agreed not to expand into Peloponnesian League territory, and both sides agreed to arbitration to settle future disputes)
47
What was the Athenian Assembly?
- Met about 40 times/year
- Open to all male citizens to discuss and vote on policies, laws, and military decisions
48
What were the different types of Athenian officials?
- Archons: Chosen by lot to ensure equality
- Boards of Officials: Made collective decisions to prevent individual domination
- 10 Military Commanders (strategoi): Elected for expertise and leadership
49
What were Liturgies?
- Wealthy citizens that financed public services (festivals, warships, infrastructure)
- Reinforced civic responsibilities
50
What were the benefits and drawbacks of the Athenian Democracy?
Benefits: Increased public engagement and equality in governance
Drawbacks: Relied heavily on labor of non-citizens (metics/slaves), some saw it as chaotic/inefficient
51
What were the Citizenship laws of 451 BCE?
Restricted citizenship to those with Athenian parents on both sides, limiting inclusivity but strengthening civic identity
52
There is a subheading called "Law & Democracy in Athens". Tell me about it
Dicasteries (Juries):
- Jurors chosen by lot from male citizens over 30
- Large juries (500+) ensured decisions reflected collective judgment, limited corruption
Conduct of Cases:
- Evidence -> speeches, witnesses, and contracts
- Slave Evidence -> Considered valid only under torture
- Logographers -> Professional speechwriters prepared arguments for litigants
- One-day Trials -> Trials were swift
Crime and Punishment:
- Punishments varied (fines, exile, death)
- Emphasis on reparations for personal disputes rather than incarceration
53
Tell me about Lysias, "On the Murder on Eratosthenes"
- Famous speech defending Euphiletos, who admitted to killing Eratosthenes for committing adultery with his wife
- Highlighted Athenian belief in defending family honor and importance of persuasive rhetoric in trials
54
There is a subheading called "Currents in Greek thought and Education". Tell me about it
Formal Education:
- Focused on developing well-rounded individuals (intellectual + physical)
- Subjects: Literature, music, PhysEd, math, astronomy, rhetoric
- Male citizens, starting age 7
Informal Education:
- Apprenticeships, cultural practices, oral traditions
- Family/community played key role
Sophists:
- Teachers of rhetoric/practical wisdom
- Taught art of persuasion and public speaking
- Emphasized relativism (truth = subjective)
55
Tell me about the birth of tragedy
- Greek drama began as choral songs dedicated to Dionysus (god of wine, fertility, revelry)
- Evolved into performances where Dionysus became protagonist (depicted as myths)
- Aeschylus introduced antagonist, allowed for dialogue/conflict, moving beyond single choral performance
- Laid foundation for development of dramatic structure and genre of tragedy
56
What was the City Dionysia Festival?
- 5 day festival in Athens dedicated to Dionysia
- Included competitions in tragedy and comedy with playwrights presenting works to be judged
- Central to Athenian culture
- Shaped public discourse, encouraged reflection on morality, politics, and human nature
57
What were the elements of tragedy?
- All male cast
- Half-sung, half-spoken
- Chorus (group of performers commented on action, expressed emotions, provided moral insight)
- Masks (actors wore masks to portray different characters and amplify expressions)
- Stylized performances (movements, gestures, speech were exaggerated)
- Peripeteia (sudden reversal of fortune, protagonist situation dramatically changes)
- Catharsis (emotional release experienced by audience, purification/sense of relief after intense drama)
58
What was a satyr play
- Greek drama performed as final play of a tetralogy at City Dionysia festival, following three tragedies
- Provided comic relief after intense emotional experience
59
Talk about the rise of comedy. Touch on Aristophanes
- Famous comedy playwright
- Known for sharp political/social satire
- Performed at City Dionysia
- Wrote "The Peace": follows character Trygaeus as he travels to Olympus to negotiate peace between Athens and Sparta offering a critique of the ongoing Peloponnesian War
- Wrote "Lysistrata": Famous anti-war play where women of Athens, led by Lysistrata, refuse to have sex until husbands agree to end war
60
Who was Herodotus
- Father of History
- Wrote "The Histories" (first systematic attempt to record/explain historic events, covers Greco-Persian Wars, customs, geography, etc.)
- Also called Father of Lies (included unverifiable stories/legends in his accounts)
61
What was Herodotus' Theory of History? (3 things)
1. Blindness: Leaders/nations often fail to see their own flaws/weaknesses, leading to poor decisions
2. Pride: Hubris often blinds individuals/nations to vulnerabilities
3. Destruction: Combination of blindness and pride leads to downfall
62
Who was Thucydides
- Wrote History of the Peloponnesian War, detailed account of conflict between Athens and Sparta (431 - 404 BCE)
- Focused more on factual accuracy, unlike Herodotus
- One of first historians to use rigorous, evidence-based approach (relied on firsthand accounts, eyewitness, critical analysis, avoiding reliance on divine explanations or myths)
63
Talk about Greek architecture, specifically the Naos & Pronaos, as well as the Peristyle
Naos (Cella):
- Inner chamber of a Greek temple
- Housing statue of deity to whom temple was dedicated
- Considered most sacred part of temple
Pronaos:
- Porch located in front of naos
- Had columns supporting roof
- Served as transitional space between exterior and interior
Peristyle:
- Row of columns that surrounded temple or courtyard
- Supported roof of temple
64
Describe aesthetics of Doric vs Ionic orders
Doric:
- Linear capital (top of column)
- Had triglyphs and metopes around roof
Ionic
- Swirly capital
- Had frieze around roof
65
What was a pediment
The triangle part of the top of a temple
66
What are Athenian red-figure vases?
Background is now black instead of figures, which is what it used to be (more detail now)
67
Tell me about Greece after the 30 Years' Peace
- Occurred between 445-435 BCE
- Athens expanded influence through alliances in Sicily and NW Greece
- In 440 BCE, island of Samos (former Athens ally) revolted, challenging Athens' dominance (demonstrated tensions in Delian League), eventually suppressed
68
There is a subheading called "Breakdown of Peace", referencing the 30 Years' Peace treaty wearing down. Talk about it
- Athens and Corcyra formed alliance
- Angered Corinth (tensions between Corinth and Corcyra over Epidamnus (city)) and threatened Athens' relationship with other Greek states
- Potidaea was ally of Athens but revolted (partially due to Corinth pressure)
- Athens imposed trade embargo on Megara, excluding them from Delian League markets (worsened relations with Peloponnesian League)
- Failed attempts to avoid war, Thebes (ally of Sparta) instead attacked Athens
- Athens had much better resources for war, strong navy and finances (Delian League)
69
There is a subheading called the "Periclean Strategy & the Plague". What was the Periclean strategy?
- Avoiding direct land battles with Sparta, relying instead on Athens' naval superiority and fortified city walls to withstand Spartan invasions
- In 429 BCE, a devastating plague struck athens, killing Pericles and a lot of people (weakened Athens strategy)
70
What was the Revolt of Mytilene?
- Occurred between 428-427 BCE
- Revolted against Athens (seeking independence)
- Cleon (Athenian leader) pursuaded assembly to execute rebels
- Second debate spared many of them
71
Talk about the Spartans at Pylos
- Occurred 425 BCE
- Athenians scored significant victory at Pylos
- Captured Spartan force on island
- Boosted Athenian morale and stronger bargaining position
72
Talk about Brasidas & Chalcidice
- Occurred during 424-422 BCE
- Spartan Brasidas led successful campaigns in Chalcidice regions
- Captured many cities and gained influence, shifted balance of power in war
73
Talk about the Peace of Nicias
- Occurred 421 BCE
- Temporary peace treaty signed between Athens and Sparta after years of war
- Intended to end hostilities, but failed to bring lasting peace due to continued skirmishes and disagreements
74
Who was Alcibiades
- Athenian leader
- Played central role in shifting Athens' foreign policy (aggressive expansion for Athens despite Peace of Nicias)
- Advocated for forging alliances with several cities within Peloponnese to counterbalance Spartan power
- Shifting loyalties (betrayed Athens for Sparta, then later returned to Athens)
75
Talk about the Destruction of Melos
- Occurred in 416 BCE
- Athens attacked Melos (neutral island) basically because they could, asked for them to surrender
- Melos refused to surrender, so Athens killed men, captured city, enslaved women and children
76
Talk about the invasion of Sicily (context, campaign, aftermath)
Context:
- Alcibiades convinced Athens to invade in 415 BCE
- Goal to expand Athenian influence in the west
- Alcibiades promised that this would bring immense resources/allies to Athens
Campaign
- Athens sent big fleet and army to Sicily
- Nicias/Lamachus led operation (Alcibiades could not attend)
- Campaign became bogged down quickly (uncoordinated, conflicting strategies, Sicily getting Spartan support)
- In 413 BCE, Athenians lost (fleet destroyed, army trapped, severely weakened Athens)
Aftermath:
- Athens struggled to recover
- Internal strife in Athens (many blaming Alcibiades)
- Played crucial role in Athens' eventual defeat in Peloponnesian war
77
What is a herm?
- Statue
- Penis on it
- Head of a deity
- Rectangular column
- Marked boundaries, roads, entrances
- Protective symbols
78
Talk about the War in the Aegean
- After Alcibiades lost influence in Athens after invasion of Sicily, he went to Sparta and provided them with strategic advice (helped build stronger navy, military tactics)
- Sparta allied with Persia, providing funds for powerful navy
- Athens creating factions due to failure and instability, people upset
- In 411 BCE, oligarchs in Athens created Council of 400 to establish oligarchic government in Athens, limiting power of the people, but failed in 410 BCE
- In the Battle of Aigospotami (405 BCE), the Athenian navy was defeated, Athens was unable to recover
- Athens surrendered to Sparta in (404 BCE), Athens had to dismantle its empire and remove walls/navy (marked end of Athenian golden age)
- Thebes and Corinth not happy with Spartan dominance, so Thebes and Corinth challenged Sparta in decades that followed after the war
- Sparta struggled to manage power after win, Thebes and Athens slowly regained power, Peloponnesian War end marked beginning of period of instability
79
What were the consequences of the Peloponnesian war
- Agriculture and trade were terrible in Greece (led to economic stagnation)
- Massive loss of life (in battle and plagues), loss of skilled labour and economic instability
- Entire cities destroyed
- Lasting divisions and mistrust, making cooperation difficult
80
What was the March of the 10,000 (context, battle, aftermath)
Context:
- Cyrus the Younger, Persian prince, wanted to overthrow brother, King Artaxerxes II, and claim Persian throne
- To do this, led large force of Greek mercenaries (10,000 surprisingly), mostly hoplites
Battle:
- At Battle of Cunaxa (401 BCE), Cyrus' army won, but Cyrus saw his brother and tried to fight, he was killed
- Cyrus' army was betrayed since they were left stranded deep in Persian territory after Cyrus' death with no leader
- Xenophon, one of the soldiers, stepped up, and led the soldiers retreat 1500 miles back
Aftermath:
- Highlighted resilience and strategic capability of Greek soldiers due to effective but challenging retreat
81
What are Decarchies
- Oligarchic governments imposed by Sparta in various Greek city-states after the Peloponnesian war
- Councils of ten members given significant control over city
- Part of Sparta's broader strategy to secure influence and control
82
What was the 30 Tyrants in Athens and the subsequent Amnesty?
30 Tyrants:
- Pro-Spartan oligarchy in Athens after their defeat in 404 BCE
- Goal was to dismantle democratic institutions of Athens and replace with a more authoritarian regime
- Ruthless (lots of executing and exiling)
- Period of 30 Tyrants was marked by fear and repression
Amnesty:
- Amnesty is a legal pardon or forgiveness, usually for political reasons
- 30 Tyrants fell in 403 BCE, Athenian democracy was restored through an 'amnesty'
- Facilitated peaceful restoration of democracy
83
Describe the Corinthian War and the resulting King's Peace
Corinthian War:
- Occurred (395-394 BCE)
- Conflict between Sparta and coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos
- Response to Spartan hegemony after Peloponnesian War and its harsh treatment of other Greek states
- Ultimately resulted in a stalemate, but weakened Sparta and Greek world more unstable
King's Peace:
- Brokered by Artaxerxes II to end Corinthian war in 387 BCE
- Declared all Greek cities should be autonomous, but granted Sparta a dominant position in Greek world by controlling cities in Asia Minor
- Marked end of Corinthian War, but did not bring lasting stability to Greece
84
There is a subheading called "Changing Greek Warfare". How did Greek warfare change in the 4th century?
Navy:
- Triremes became dominant
Mercenary:
- Many were Thracians and Cretans (non-Greeks)
- Fought for money
Phalanx:
- Became more flexible
- Longer spears
- Peltasts (light infantry with javelin) and cavalry introduced to phalanx formations
85
What was going on with Sparta (& Persia) vs. Athens & Thebes between 387 - 371 BCE
General:
- After King's Peace (387 BCE), Persia's influence was solidified
- Athens and Thebes formed alliances to challenge Spartan dominance
- Thebes eventually became a major military power
2nd Athenian League:
- Athens revived Athenian League (378 BCE)
- Designed to counterbalance Sparta's power
- Struggled to maintain influence over long term
Rise of Thebes:
- Military innovations
- Led by Epaminondas
Battle of Leuktra:
- Occurred in 371 BCE
- Epaminondas led army, beat Spartans
- New oblique formation (phalanx) helped win
Federations Created by Thebes
- Thebes expanded influence by creating federations with other Greek cities
- Designed to counterbalance Spartan and Athenian power
- Helped Thebes assert control over important regions
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What was going on with Sparta & Athens vs Thebes & allies between 370-340 BCE
- Sparta and Athens united to oppose Thebes' growing influence
- Led to battle of Mantinea (362 BCE), Thebes won but heavy casualties, weakening them
- Second Athenian League dissolved due to lack of unity
- Federations formed by Thebes gradually collapsed as well, by 340 BCE, power of Thebes significantly diminished
87
What were the poleis like in the fourth century?
- Static
- Internal strife
- Unstable
- Workers marginalized
- Women became more like property
88
What is ta aphrodisia
Sexual matters or desires, both physical and emotional, celebrated in Greek culture
89
What is Apotropaism
Use of symbols and rituals to ward off evil; phallic imagery was common in art and amulets for protection, fertility, and good luck.
90
What are the Homosexual vs Heterosexual norms? Touch on heavenly and earthly aphrodite as well as erastes and eromenos
Heavenly Aphrodite: Associated with spiritual, platonic love, often seen in relationships between older men and younger boys (erastes and eromenos)
Earthly Aphrodite: Represented physical, heterosexual love and romantic relationships between men and women
Erastes: The older man, often in his prime, acting as the active, teaching, and dominant partner in a relationship
Eromenos: The younger male, typically in his adolescence, serving as the passive partner in the relationship, who was often educated and mentored by the erastes
91
Explain the family membership idea in Ancient Greece. Touch on infant exposure and children's responsibilities to parents
Infant Exposure:
- Infants, especially from poorer families or with deformities, were sometimes abandoned
- Unwanted or unhealthy children were left outside, often to die or be taken by others
- The practice was later condemned and outlawed by some philosophers
Children’s Responsibilities to Parents:
- Children, particularly sons, were expected to care for aging parents
- Sons inherited their father’s property and continued the family line
- Filial piety and responsibility to parents were considered essential for family honor
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What was marriage like? Touch on its purpose, what a dowry was, and the ceremony
Purpose:
- Primarily for producing legitimate heirs and continuing the family line
- Strengthening social ties, alliances, and ensuring economic stability
Dowry:
- A gift or payment provided by the bride’s family to the groom’s family
- Ensured the bride’s financial security and helped with marriage negotiations
Ceremony:
- Marriages were typically arranged, with a ceremony involving religious rites
- Celebrations included a procession, sacrifices to gods, and feasting
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What was the legal status of women like? Touch on Parthenos, Nymphe, & Gyne, as well as Porne & Hetaira, and Kyrios & Epikleros
Parthenos, Nymphe, & Gyne:
- Parthenos: A young, unmarried woman, typically under the guardianship of her father.
- Nymphe: A woman who has recently married, entering the stage of marital life.
- Gyne: An adult woman, particularly a wife, with legal and household responsibilities.
Porne & Hetaira:
- Porne: A prostitute, typically a slave or lower-status woman, whose role was to serve men for money.
- Hetaira: An educated, independent courtesan who could engage in intellectual conversation and was sometimes involved with high-status men.
Kyrios & Epikleros:
- Kyrios: The male guardian or legal protector of a woman, typically her father or husband.
- Epikleros: A woman with no male heirs, whose marriage was arranged to preserve her family’s estate.
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What were the legal rights of slaves like? Touch on Chattel slavery, Slave Resistance, and Manumission
Chattel Slavery:
- Slaves were considered property, with no personal rights or freedoms.
- They could be bought, sold, or traded, and were subjected to their owner's control.
Slave Resistance (Essentializing):
- Slaves could resist through subtle actions, such as working slowly, feigning illness, or escaping.
- More overt forms of resistance, like rebellions, were rare due to harsh punishment and lack of opportunities for organized revolt.
Manumission:
- Slaves could be freed through manumission, a legal process that granted them freedom.
- Some slaves were able to purchase their freedom or were freed in a master’s will.
95
Talk about the life of Socrates and his philosophizing
- Socrates was a classical Greek philosopher known for his focus on ethics and the pursuit of knowledge through dialogue
- He didn’t write down his teachings; his ideas are mainly recorded through the works of his students, especially Plato
- Socrates used the Socratic method—asking probing questions to stimulate critical thinking and uncover assumptions
- He was critical of Athenian democracy and its reliance on popular opinion over reason
- Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock for corrupting the youth and impiety
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Talk about Plato and the Academy
- Plato, Socrates’ student, founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world
- He wrote philosophical dialogues, with Socrates often as the main character
- Plato's philosophy focused on ideal forms, the nature of knowledge, and the importance of justice
- He advocated for a society governed by philosopher-kings and believed in the immortality of the soul
- The Academy became a center for philosophical study, influencing Western thought for centuries
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What is Euthyphro
- Euthyphro is one of Plato's dialogues set in Athens, just before Socrates' trial.
- Socrates encounters Euthyphro, a man who is prosecuting his own father for murder, at the court. Socrates begins a philosophical conversation with him about the nature of piety and holiness.
98
Who is speaking here:
"Is the pious or holy beloved by the gods because it is holy, or holy because it is beloved of the gods?"
Socrates to Euthyphro during the trial of his father
99
Describe the Trial of Socrates (context, trial, results, aftermath)
Context:
- Socrates put on trial for corrupting the youth and impiety
- His ideas and methods, particularly questioning traditional beliefs and values, were seen as a threat by some in Athens
The Trial:
- 399 BCE
- Defended himself, philosophy was to question and debate openly rather than offering a traditional defense
- Emphasized his social role as challenging people to think critically and seek truth
Result:
- Found guilty, sentenced to death by drinking poison
- Socrates remained calm
Aftermath
- Marked significant moment in Athenian democracy, highlighting tension between free thought and public opinion
- Socrates' commitment to questioning authority and seeking truth left a lasting impact on Western philosophy, with his methods influencing subsequent thinkers like Plato and Aristotle
- His trial and death are often seen as symbols of intellectual integrity and the consequences of challenging established norms
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Describe Aristotle (upbringing, Lyceum, taxonomy)
Upbringing:
- Born in 384 BCE
- Sent to Athens at 17 to study at Plato's Academy, where he remained for 20 years, learning and teaching
- Returned to Macedonia to tutor Alexander the Great after Plato's death
Founded the Lyceum:
- Around 336 BCE, after returning to Athens, Aristotle founded his own school, the Lyceum.
- Center for research and learning, with Aristotle conducting extensive research in various fields.
- Emphasized empirical observation and systematic classification of knowledge, contributing to the development of many scientific disciplines.
Taxonomy:
- Aristotle is known for his contributions to taxonomy, the classification of living organisms.
- He categorized animals and plants based on their characteristics and behavior, laying the groundwork for later biological classification systems.
- His approach was based on detailed observations, grouping organisms into categories such as "blooded" and "bloodless" animals.
- Aristotle’s methods influenced the development of biology, with his ideas on classification remaining influential for centuries.
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Describe Early Macedon
- Chronically unstable, constant internal strife and external threats
- Rich in resources, helped fund later military campaigns
102
What were the court politics like in Early Macedon
- Royal court was center for diplomacy and military planning
- King's position was not always secure, internal power struggles within court could undermine monarchy's stability
103
Who were the predecessors of Phillip II?
- Amyntas III (reigned 393-370 BCE): Stabilized kingdom after period of internal unrest, but successors faced external threats
- Perdiccas III (reigned 365-359 BCE): Died in battle, leaving vulnerable throne, which Philip II, his younger brother, eventually inherited.
- The predecessors of Philip II laid the groundwork for his reign by maintaining a centralized monarchy, but it was under Philip's leadership that Macedon transformed into a major military and political power
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Describe the reign of Philip II
Hostage in Thebes as a teenager:
- Taken as a hostage to Thebes
- Learned military tactics, diplomacy, and gained an understanding of Greek politics
Ascends to the throne in 360:
- Became king of Macedon in 359 BCE after death of his brother, King Perdiccas III
- He inherited kingdom in disarray, weak defenses and threats from both within and outside the kingdom
- Quickly reformed military and central government, transforming Macedon into a powerful force
Conquers Paeonians & Illyrians, Epirus, Thrace:
- Early in his reign, Philip focused on securing Macedon’s borders and expanding its territory
- Defeated Paeonians to the north, securing vital land and resources
- Also crushed Illyrians, who had been a constant threat, and incorporated their territory into Macedon
- Turned attention southward, annexing Epirus and making strategic alliances with key Greek states
-Expanded Macedon’s influence over Thrace
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Describe the Reforms of Phillip II
The Sarissa:
- Long spear
- Gave Macedonian infantry reach advantage over traditional Greek hoplites
- Allowed soldiers to fight more organized
The Syntagma:
- New formation for phalanx
- Soldiers arranged in rows, front row holding Sarissas at the ready
Cavalry Innovations:
- Introduced heavy cavalry units
- Developed more effective companion cavalry
- Ensured the cavalry worked in coordination with infantry
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Describe the 3rd Sacred War
- Occurred 356 - 346 BCE
- Fought over control of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, which had been seized by the Phocians
- Philip II intervened in the conflict, positioning himself as a defender of the Delphic sanctuary and leveraging the situation to increase Macedon’s influence in Greek affairs
- War ended with the Phocians defeated, and Philip gained significant political leverage in Greece
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What was Delphi and the Delphic Council?
- Delphi considered spiritual center of Greece
- Control of Delphi was vital for political influence
- Delphic Council was made up of representatives from various Greek states, responsible for overseeing sanctuary
- Philip used his victory in Third Sacred War to gain control of the council, further asserting Macedon’s dominance in Greek politics
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Describe the dispute between Phocis vs Thebes (& Macedonia)
- Phocians, supported by Athens, had been in conflict with Thebes over control of Delphi and surrounding territories
- Philip’s involvement in the Third Sacred War tipped balance in favor of Thebes, aligning Macedon with Thebes against Athens and the Phocians
- This strategic intervention helped Philip build alliances and positioned him as a key power broker in Greece
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What was the Theoric Fund of Athens
- Fund in Athens used to provide entertainment and public festivals for citizens, boosting morale and fostering civic pride
- Opponents of the fund, like Demosthenes, criticized its use during times of crisis, arguing that the resources should be redirected to military preparations against Philip
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Who were Demosthenes and the Philippics
- Demosthenes delivered series of speeches warning of the growing threat posed by Philip of Macedon
- "Philippics" accused Philip of undermining Greek freedom and urged Athens to unite with other city-states against him
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Describe the the Peace of Philocrates and the events that followed
Peace of Philocrates:
- Occurred 346 BCE
- Peace treaty brokered between Philip and Athens, initially intended to end hostilities.
- Athens ceded territory and recognized Philip’s dominance in exchange for peace.
- However, Philip’s continued expansionism and perceived manipulation of the treaty reignited tensions.
Philip Declares War on Athens (340):
- Philip sieged/disputed with Athens allies, led to hostilities
- Athens, encouraged by Demosthenes, declared war in response to Philip’s provocations
- Athens and Thebes united against Philip, recognizing the threat he posed
Battle of Chaeronea (338):
- Philip defeated Athens and Thebes
- Victory solidified Macedon’s control over Greece, ending Greek independence and paving the way for Philip’s planned campaign against Persia.
- Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military unit, annihilated during the battle, symbolizing end of Theban military power
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There is a subheading called "Philip's Plans for Greece". What were his plans?
Corinthian League (337):
- Philip established the Corinthian League, a federation of Greek city-states under Macedonian leadership
- Members pledged to maintain peace within Greece and collectively prepare for a campaign against Persia
Council of all Greek Poleis:
- The Corinthian League included a council where representatives from member states could discuss and vote on matters, though Philip retained ultimate control.
- Designed to provide appearance of unity and shared governance among the Greek poleis.
Panhellenism:
- Philip promoted idea of Panhellenism, uniting all Greeks in a common cause against Persia.
- Positioned himself as the leader of a unified Greece, emphasizing shared cultural and historical ties to rally support for his Persian campaign.
Death of Philip II (336):
- Philip was assassinated at a wedding celebration for his daughter in Aegae by a member of his personal guard, Pausanias.
- Death left his plans incomplete, and his son Alexander the Great inherited the throne and responsibility for the Persian campaign.
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What happened after Philip II's death
- Alexander the Great takes the throne at age 20
- Revolts throughout Macedonian empire hoping to regain independence, including Athens and Thebes
- Quickly suppressed by Alexander
- Thebes razed as a warning to not do that
- Alexander eliminated potential rivals from the Macedonian court
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Define Tumulus
- Large mound-like burial structure covering tombs or graves
- One at Vergina covered several royal tombs, including what is believed to be Philip II's
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Define Larnax
- Small, box-like container used to hold cremated remains or bones of deceased
- One in Vergina though to contain remains of Philip II
116
Describe the Battle of Granicus (context, battle, aftermath)
Context:
- Alexander led an army of approximately 37,000 troops, including Macedonians and allied Greek forces
- Limited financial resources, campaign relied on success to sustain itself
Battle:
- Occurred 334 BCE
- Alexander’s first major battle against the Persian Empire
- Victory secured Alexander's control over western Asia Minor
- Demonstrated his tactical brilliance and cemented his reputation as a military leader
Aftermath:
- Greeks generally admired Alexander for spreading Hellenic culture, though some were skeptical of his goals
- Differentiated treatment of Greeks and non-Greeks; Greek allies were treated with respect, while non-Greek populations were often subjugated or incorporated into the Macedonian system
- Non-Greek leaders who submitted to Alexander were integrated into his administration, emphasizing both diplomacy and domination
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Describe the Battle of Issus (context, battle, aftermath)
Context:
- Alexander commanded around 40,000 troops.
- Persian King, Darius III, led an army estimated at 50,000–100,000, though could be exaggerated
Battle:
- Battlefield was narrow, nullified the numerical advantage of the Persian army
- Darius positioned army to block Alexander’s advance, but the confined terrain worked against him.
- Alexander exploited the Persians' lack of maneuverability, focusing attack on their center where Darius was located.
- Macedonian phalanxes and cavalry overwhelmed Persian forces, while Alexander personally led a charge that targeted Darius directly.
- Darius III fled the battlefield, abandoning army, family, and treasury.
- Persian forces suffered massive casualties, while Alexander’s losses were relatively minor.
Aftermath:
- Alexander captured Darius’s family, treating them with respect to maintain his image as a magnanimous conqueror
- Victory solidified Alexander’s control over Asia Minor and opened the path to the heart of the Persian Empire
- Issus showcased Alexander’s leadership and tactical brilliance, further boosting his army’s morale and his reputation across the ancient world
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There is a subheading called "From Issus to Egypt". What happened during this time?
Darius III’s Offer:
- After the defeat at Issus, Darius III attempted to negotiate peace.
- He offered Alexander a large ransom for his family, significant territory, and an alliance.
- Alexander rejected the offer, declaring his intent to conquer the entire Persian Empire.
Dealing with the Persian Fleet:
- Alexander focused on neutralizing Persian navy by controlling key coastal cities rather than engaging directly at sea.
- Captured Phoenician ports like Tyre after a long siege (332 BCE), depriving the Persian fleet of crucial bases.
- Secured the eastern Mediterranean, preventing the Persians from threatening Greece by sea.
Alexander in Egypt:
- Entered Egypt in late 332 BCE, greeted as a liberator from Persian rule.
- Founded the city of Alexandria, intending it to be a major cultural and economic hub.
- Visited the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwa Oasis, where he was proclaimed a divine figure, bolstering his image as both king and deity.
- Consolidated control over Egypt with minimal resistance, securing its wealth and strategic location.
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There is a subheading called "From Issus to Egypt (331-330 BCE)". What happened during this time?
Darius III’s Second Offer:
- He offered an even larger portion of the Persian Empire, along with his daughter’s hand in marriage
- Alexander rejected the offer, claiming full dominion over Asia as his right after defeating the Persian army
Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE):
- Decisive clash between Alexander and Darius III
- Darius assembled vast army
- Alexander employed superior tactics, including a well-executed oblique phalanx and cavalry maneuvers.
- Resulted in a decisive Macedonian victory; Darius fled the battlefield, further demoralizing his forces.
- Subsequently captured Susa and Babylon where resources were used to fund campaign and provide strategic locations
- Marched to Persepolis where he looted the city and burned the royal palace as a symbolic act of revenge for the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE
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There is a subheading called "High Road to India (330-327 BCE)". What happened during this time?
Death of Darius III (330 BCE):
- Darius fled after the defeat at Gaugamela but was betrayed by his satrap, Bessus.
- Bessus declared himself king (Artaxerxes V) but was eventually captured by Alexander’s forces.
- Darius found murdered; Alexander claimed to avenge him, solidifying his role as the legitimate ruler of Persia.
Struggle for Bactria and Sogdiana (330-327 BCE):
- These regions in Central Asia proved challenging to subdue due to their rugged terrain and local resistance.
- Alexander faced guerrilla warfare led by local leaders, including Bessus and Spitamenes.
- Adopted innovative strategies, such as forming alliances through marriage
- Established numerous military colonies to control key areas and secure supply lines.
Macedonian Unrest:
- Campaigns in Central Asia were long and arduous, leading to dissatisfaction among Alexander’s troops.
- Soldiers, weary from constant warfare and the harsh conditions, began questioning Alexander’s leadership.
- Alexander’s adoption of Persian customs, including proskynesis (ritual bowing), further alienated some Macedonians who viewed it as abandoning Greek traditions.
- Executed Philotas and Parmenion (high-ranking officers) on charges of conspiracy, signaling increasing tension within his ranks.
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There is a subheading called "India & the End of the Dream (327-325 BCE)". What happened during this time?
Battle of Hydaspes (326 BCE):
- One of Alexander's most significant and challenging victories due to the difficult terrain, including the river and monsoon rains.
- Porus' forces included war elephants, which posed a unique challenge, but Alexander’s tactical brilliance, including the use of a feigned retreat and flanking maneuvers, led to a decisive Macedonian victory.
- After the battle, Alexander famously showed mercy to Porus, restoring him to his throne and forming an alliance with him.
- The victory allowed Alexander to extend his empire into the Indian subcontinent, but it also marked the limit of his expansion to the east.
March Down the Indus River (326-325 BCE):
- Following the victory at Hydaspes, Alexander's army moved along the Indus River toward the ocean, hoping to continue his conquests.
- The army faced harsh conditions, including difficult terrain, lack of resources, and mounting fatigue.
- Along the way, Alexander founded several cities
- Troops, exhausted after years of constant campaigning, refused to march further east, demanding to return home.
- Despite Alexander’s desire to continue, forced to turn back, marking end of eastward expansion.
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There is a subheading called "Return to the West (325-323 BCE)". What happened during this time?
March through the Gedrosian Desert:
- Returning back from eastward campaign
- Alexander’s army faced tremendous hardship during the march, suffering heavy casualties due to dehydration, exhaustion, and the difficult environment.
- Alexander’s leadership was critical in pushing the army through the desert, although the march significantly weakened his forces.
Reorganization of the Empire:
- Upon his return to Babylon, Alexander focused on reorganizing his empire, with plans to create a more unified and efficient structure
- Aimed to integrate both Greeks and native peoples into his empire through various means, such as intermarriage and the appointment of local leaders to prominent positions.
- He also made efforts to establish a blending of Greek and Persian cultures, which included the adoption of Persian customs and dress, though this alienated some of his Macedonian followers.
Uniting Greek and Barbarian:
- One of Alexander’s key goals was the fusion of Greek and Persian (barbarian) cultures, exemplified in his policy of encouraging marriages between his officers and Persian women and instituted a practice of proskynesis (Persian-style bowing to the king), which caused tension among his Greek and Macedonian followers.
- His promotion of mixed marriages and the creation of a unified elite group that included both Greeks and Persians was an attempt to strengthen the empire and ensure its longevity. However, this policy generated resistance from his soldiers, who felt alienated by Alexander’s increasing embrace of Persian customs.
Death in Babylon (323 BCE):
- Alexander fell seriously ill in Babylon in the spring of 323 BCE, possibly due to a fever, infection, or poisoning.
- After several days of suffering, Alexander died at the age of 32
- He had no clear successor so his death left a power vacuum, and his empire was divided among his generals, known as the Diadochi, who fought for control of different regions of the empire in the subsequent years.
- The sudden death of Alexander marked the end of an era of unification and conquest and began the fragmentation of his vast empire.
- This time period was called the Wars of the Diadochi, a series of conflicts among Alexander's generals to control his vast empire, which eventually led to the creation of the Hellenistic kingdoms
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Define cosmopolis
Term used to describe a city or community characterized by its diversity and inclusivity, often composed of people from various cultural, ethnic, and social backgrounds
124
Perdiccas was one of Alexander's greatest generals. There is a subheading called "The Regency of Perdiccas". Talk about these events
Settling Veterans & Exiles:
- Settled veterans and exiles in conquered regions to secure loyalty.
- Aimed to maintain stability in the empire.
The Revolt in Greece:
- Greek city-states, including Athens, revolted against Macedonian rule.
- Perdiccas sent forces to suppress the revolt and reinforce Macedonian control.
Appointing Satraps (Governors):
- Appointed satraps to govern various provinces of the empire.
- Satraps held significant power, leading to internal challenges and rivalries.
The Death of Perdiccas:
- Perdiccas faced growing resistance from generals and satraps
- Assassinated in 321 BC, ending his regency
125
How did the Macedonian Empire divide?
- Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE), Macedonian empire officially divided among diadochi after this
- Division created more stable independent kingdoms but warfare amongst diadochi continued
- They all fell by 30 BCE
126
There is a subheading called "The Polis in the Hellenistic World". Describe these new poleis
Greek "Leagues" of Poleis:
- Formation of leagues (e.g., Aetolian, Achaean).
- Mutual defense and collective decision-making.
- Struggled with internal divisions.
- Faced external pressures from Macedonia and Rome.
A New Class of Aristocracy:
- Rise of new elite classes: military leaders, wealthy merchants.
- Blending of old noble families with new wealthy classes
- Wealth concentrated through imperial governance and trade
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Describe the Hellenistic Philosophies
Stoics
- Belief in natural law governing the universe
- Emphasis on rationality and logic
- Advocated for virtue as the highest good, in harmony with nature
- Key figures: Zeno of Citium, Epictetus, Seneca
Epicureans
- Focused on natural pleasure and living in accordance with the senses
- Goal: ataraxia (freedom from pain and distress)
- Believed in simple pleasures and the avoidance of unnecessary desires
- Key figure: Epicurus
Cynics/Skeptics
- Cynics: Rejected social conventions, living in accordance with nature
- Skeptics: Questioned the possibility of certain knowledge
- Diogenes of Sinope: Iconic Cynic philosopher, lived in a barrel, criticized social norms and materialism
128
Describe Macedonian kingdoms and their two primary forms
Absolute Monarchies
- Kings held total control over the state, with little power delegated
- Rulers were often seen as divine or semi-divine figures
- Power passed through family dynasties
State Monopolies
- Kings controlled key industries, including agriculture, mining, and trade
- Monopolies were established to fund military campaigns and royal projects
- Wealth from monopolies supported royal courts and military expansions
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What was Hellenistic society like? Talk about new opportunities in a colonial world as well as Alexandria and Hellenistic culture
New Opportunities in a Colonial World:
- Growth of a Greek middle class in colonies and Hellenistic cities
- Greek settlers and soldiers established new communities across the Hellenistic world
- Hellenistic women gained more freedom and opportunities, especially in cities like Alexandria
- Wealth from commerce, agriculture, and royal patronage allowed for social mobility
Alexandria and Hellenistic Culture:
- Alexandria became a cultural and intellectual hub, famous for its Library of Alexandria
- Home to the Museum of Alexandria, attracting scholars, scientists, and philosophers
- A blend of Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Jewish cultures led to rich cross-cultural exchanges
- Art and architecture flourished, combining Greek traditions with local influences
- Hellenistic culture promoted learning, philosophy, and advancement in science (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes)
130
Describe late classical art
- Shift from idealized forms and perfection to more expressive and emotional representations
- Focus on realism and individualism, showcasing personal character and human experience
- Movement toward naturalism, with artists depicting more dynamic poses, physical imperfections, and aging
- Psychological depth became a central focus, illustrating inner emotions and suffering
- The Hellenistic influence brought a departure from the calm and balanced ideals of earlier Greek art
131
Talk about scholarship and science during the Hellenistic period
Technology and Applied Science
- Advances in engineering, astronomy, and medicine
- Notable figures: Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Euclid
- Developed water clocks, automata, and machines
Antikythera Mechanism
- Ancient analog computer from 100 BCE
- Used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses
- Consisted of gears and dials for tracking lunar and solar cycles
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Describe social relations in the Hellenistic world
The Place of Non-Greeks:
- Hellenization spread to Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Indians, and other peoples in the empire
- Greek language became dominant in administration, trade, and culture
- Greek elites and Macedonian rulers took the lead in spreading Greek culture
- Local populations adopted Greek customs, but retained some traditions
- City-states and Greek colonies helped spread Hellenism
Hellenistic Religion:
- Flexible and non-dogmatic approach to religion
- Syncretism: blending of Greek gods with local deities (e.g., Zeus with Egyptian Ammon, Apollo with Helios)
- Rise of mystery religions (e.g., Isis, Mithras)
- Emphasis on personal salvation and devotion
- Incorporation of Eastern religious practices into Greek religious life
133
Define Antipater
A high-ranking general and regent under Alexander, tasked with governing Macedonia during his campaigns.
134
Who was Bessus
A Persian satrap who, after Darius III's death, proclaimed himself king and was later defeated by Alexander
135
Who was Callisthenes
A historian and philosopher who accompanied Alexander, documenting his campaigns and conquests
136
Who was Cleitus the Black
A Macedonian officer who saved Alexander's life at the Battle of the Mallian city but was later killed by him in a drunken argument
137
Define Gordian knot
An intricate knot tied by King Midas of Phrygia, which Alexander famously "untied" by cutting it with his sword, fulfilling a prophecy
138
Who was Parmenion
Veteran Macedonian general who played a key role in Alexander's early victories and was later executed on Alexander's orders
139
Who was Philotas
The son of Parmenion, who was accused of conspiring against Alexander and executed in 330 BC
140
Define Zeus-Ammon
A syncretic deity combining the Greek god Zeus with the Egyptian god Ammon, worshipped at the Oracle of Siwa, which Alexander visited
141
Define Amphictyonic Council
A religious and political league of ancient Greek city-states, originally formed to protect the sanctuary of Delphi
142
Define Royal Pages
Young noblemen or princes who served as attendants to kings, often receiving education and military training
143
Define Illyria
A historical region in the western Balkans, inhabited by the Illyrians, and conquered by Philip II.
144
Who was Olympias
Mother of Alexander the Great, influential and politically active figure in Macedonian royalty
145
Who was Agesilaus
A Spartan king (r. 398-360 BC), known for his military campaigns, particularly in Asia Minor and against Thebes
146
Define Gastraphetes
An ancient Greek mechanical weapon resembling a crossbow, used to launch arrows or bolts
147
Who was Iphicrates
An Athenian general noted for his reforms in military tactics, particularly the use of peltasts and light infantry
148
Define Klepsydra
An ancient Greek water clock used to measure time, often used in courts to time speeches and in other legal contexts
149
Define Kleroterion
A machine used in ancient Athens to randomly select citizens for jury duty or government office, ensuring fairness in selection
150
Define the Sacred Band
A famous elite military unit of Thebes, consisting of 150 pairs of male lovers, known for their valor in battle
151
Define the Second Athenian Confederacy
A coalition of Greek city-states led by Athens (377-355 BC) intended to counter the power of Sparta, though it ultimately faltered
152
Define Harmost
A Spartan governor or military officer placed in a city-state to enforce Spartan control, particularly after the Peloponnesian War
153
Who was Lysander
A Spartan general who played a key role in Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian War, particularly through his command of the navy and his defeat of Athens at Aegospotami
154
Who was Tissaphernes
A Persian satrap who played a key role in the Peloponnesian War, initially supporting Sparta with financial aid and later shifting his allegiance to support Athens
155
Contextualize the following quote:
"Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by,
That here, obeying their commands, we lie."
Inscription on the epitaph for the soldiers that died on Thermopylae
156
Who is speaking?
"Must we but weep o'er days more blest?
Must we but blush?-Our fathers bled.
Earth! Render back from out thy breast
A remnant of our Spartan dead!
Of the three hundred grant but three,
To make a new Thermopylae!"
Lord Byron, in his poem Don Juan
157
Who is speaking?
"I am always the first to come here
And I sit alone, alone in t he wide Assembly.
...but always I gaze
Out over the fields, craving for peace,
Hating this city, aching for my village
Where the cry isn't always "Buy, haggle, and fleece,"
But where there is give-and-take and a living for all...."
Aristophanes, in Acharnians, but the character is Dicaeopolis
158
Summarize Plato, Euthaphyro
The Setting: Socrates meets Euthyphro outside the court, where Euthyphro is prosecuting his own father for the murder of a servant. Socrates is intrigued by Euthyphro’s confidence in his understanding of piety and asks him to explain what piety truly is.
The Question of Piety: Socrates asks Euthyphro to define piety. Euthyphro first suggests that piety is what he is doing—prosecuting his father for murder—because he believes it is right to uphold justice, no matter the family ties.
The Euthyphro Dilemma: Socrates challenges Euthyphro by asking whether something is pious because the gods love it, or do the gods love it because it is pious. This question—known as the "Euthyphro Dilemma"—raises the issue of whether morality is independent of the gods or whether it is based solely on their whims.
Euthyphro's Responses: Euthyphro offers several definitions of piety throughout the dialogue, but Socrates critiques each one. He argues that Euthyphro’s answers are either circular or insufficient, pointing out contradictions and weaknesses in his reasoning.
The Outcome: The dialogue ends unresolved, with Socrates not accepting Euthyphro's definitions of piety, leaving the question open. Euthyphro, frustrated, departs without offering a satisfactory answer, and Socrates is left questioning the nature of piety and divine approval.
159
Summarize Lysis, On the Murder of Eratosthenes
Euphiletus' Account: Euphiletus explains that he discovered the affair by catching his wife in the act and learning from a servant that Eratosthenes had been openly courting her. Euphiletus, enraged by this betrayal, felt compelled to avenge his honor and protect his family.
Righteous Anger: Lysias argues that Euphiletus acted out of justified anger, asserting that such an offense against a man’s honor and his family required action. He contends that the murder was not premeditated but a response to a moment of dishonor.
Public Support: Lysias emphasizes the societal norms of the time, which allowed for the defense of one’s wife and family honor. He argues that others would have reacted similarly in such a situation, suggesting that Euphiletus is not a criminal but a victim of circumstance.
Self-Defense and Honor: The defense focuses on the idea that Euphiletus was protecting his dignity and his household. Lysias appeals to the jurors’ sense of justice by portraying the murder as an impulsive act committed in a fit of righteous anger rather than premeditated malice.
Ancient Greece
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