Midterm 2 Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
Learning can be described as
A
a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience
2
Q
_______ is learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus
A
Classical Conditioning
3
Q
Unconditioned stimulus
A
a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning
4
Q
Unconditioned response
A
A reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
5
Q
_____ can be described as a once neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response
A
Conditioned stimulus
6
Q
_______ can be described as the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus
A
Conditioned response
7
Q
Acquisition is when
A
the initial phase of learning in which a response is established
8
Q
______ is the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together
A
Extinction
9
Q
Spontaneous recovery is when
A
the recurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response typically after some time has passed since extinction
10
Q
_____ is a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different though similar stimulus
A
generalization
11
Q
Discrimination can be described as
A
an organism learns to respond one original stimulus but not to a new stimulus even though it could be similar
12
Q
Conditioned emotional Response
A
consists of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation
13
Q
_____ is the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli
A
preparedness
14
Q
______ acquired dislike disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with an illness
A
Conditioned taste aversion
15
Q
Conditioned drug tolerance
A
over time more drug is needed achieve the same high
16
Q
Operant conditioning is a
A
type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences
17
Q
Reinforcement is a
A
process in which an event or reward follows a response which increases that the behaviour will occur again
18
Q
Punishment is a
A
process that decreases the future probability of a response
19
Q
a stimulus that is contingent upon a response that increases the probability of that response occurring again
A
reinforcer
20
Q
a stimulus that is contingent upon a response that results in a decrease in a behaviour
A
punisher
21
Q
Positive reinforcement is
A
the strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcers such as praise or money follow that behaviour
22
Q
Negative Reinforcement involves
A
The strengthening of a behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus
23
Q
_____ is a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur
A
avoidance learning
24
Q
Escape learning is when
A
a response is removes a stimulus that is already present
25
Positive Punishment
A process in which a behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed by a particular usually unpleasant stimulus
26
Negative punishment
occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus
27
Primary reinforcers consist of
reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs that affect an individual's ability to survive
28
Secondary Reinforcers consist of
stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn they have value
29
_______ is a cue or event that indicates that a response if made will be reinforced
discriminative stimulus
30
Extinction
The weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available
31
Shaping
a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximation of that response
32
______ can be described as rules that determine when reinforcement is available
Schedules of Reinforcement
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_____ is when every response results in reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
34
Partial Reinforcement is
only a certain number of responses are rewarded or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available
35
Fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed
36
Variable ratio schedule
the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average age
37
Fixed interval schedule
Reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes
38
Variable interval schedule
The first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time
39
Partial Reinforcement Effect
A phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous
40
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is _______
a consequence of a behaviour
41
In Classical conditioning, reinforcement is _______
present regardless whether a response occurs
42
In classical conditioning behaviour mostly depends on
reflexive and psychological responses
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In operant conditioning behaviour mostly depends on
skeletal muscles
44
Stores retain_______
information in memory without using it for any specific purpose
45
Control processes
shift information from one memory store into another
46
Attention
selects which information will be passed on to the short term memory
47
Encoding
The process of storing information information in the long term memory back into the short term memory
48
Retrieval
Brings information from the long term memory back into the short term memory
49
sensory memory
a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time
50
Iconic Memory
The visual form of sensory memory
51
Echoic Memory
The auditory form of sensory memory
52
Short term memory
a memory store with limited capacity and duration (less than a min)
53
Long term memory
Holds information for an extended periods of times if not permanently
54
Chunking
Organizing smaller units of information into larger more meaningful units
55
Serial Position effect
Most people will recall the first few items in a list and the last few items and maybe 1-2 items from the middle
56
Proactive Interference
The first information learned occupies memory
57
Retroactive Interference
The most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long term memory
58
Storage
Refers to the time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval
59
Maintenance Rehearsal
Prolonging exposure to information by repeating it
60
Elaborative Rehearsal
Prolonging exposure to information by thinking about it's meaning
61
Shallow processing
involves more superficial properties of a stimulus such as the sound of spelling of a word
62
Deep processing
Generally related to an item's meaning or function
63
Self reference
When you think about information in terms of how to relates to you or how it is useful to you
64
Survival Processing
Item relating to survival are more likely to be remembered
65
Recognition
Involves identifying a stimulus or a piece of information when it is presented to you
66
Recall
Involves retrieving information when asked
67
Encoding Specificity Principle
Retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding
68
Context Dependent Memory
Retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same physical setting as encoding
69
Context Dependent Forgetting
Changing environments with a purpose and during the change forgetting it
70
Context Reinstatement Effect
Walking back into the previous environment in order to remember what was forgotten
71
Flashbulb memory
An extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event
72
Mnemonic
a technique intended to improve memory for specific information
73
Method of Loci
A mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path
74
Acronyms
Pronounceable words whose letters Corepresent the initials of an important phrase or set of items
75
First Letter Technique
Uses the letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence
76
Dual Coding
occurs when information is stored in more than one form
77
testing effect
Taking practice tests can improve exam performance even without additional studying
78
Schemas
Organized clusters that constitute one's knowledge about events objects and ideas
79
Constructive memories
a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
80
false memory
remembering events that did not occur or incorrectly
81
Misinformation effect
When info occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event
82
Imagination Inflation
The increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of an event
83
DRM Procedure
Participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates
84
Recovered memory
A memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time
85
_______ is a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories
recovered memory controversy
86
Anthropometrics
Methods of measuring physical and mental variations in humans
87
Intelligence
The ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt to or overcome obstacles
88
Mental Age
The intellectual ability score for children of a specific age
89
Stanford Binet Test
a test intended to measure innate level of intelligence
90
Intelligence Quotient
Calculated by taking a person's mental age dividing it by their chronological age and then multiplying it by 100
91
WAIS
Most common intelligence test used for adolescents and adults
92
Raven's progressive matrices
An intelligence test that is based on pictures not words thus make it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background
93
Eugenics
Good genes
94
Stereotype threat
which occurs when negative stereotypes about a group cause group members to underperform on ability tests
95
Entity theory
the belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult or impossible to change
96
Incremental theory
The belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practices and effort
97
Who believed in anthropometrics and eugenics
Sir Francis Galton
98
Alfred Binet was
hired by the french government to identify which students needed special education and discovered the mental age
99
Who invented the IQ
William Stern
100
Who created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
David Wechsler
101
Savant
an individual with low mental capacity in most domains but excels in specific areas
102
Factor analysis
a statistical technique that examines correlations between variables to find clusters of related variables or factors
103
general intelligence factor (g)
represents a person's mental energy
104
Fluid intelligence
used in learning new information and solving new problems NOT based on knowledge that a person already possesses
105
Crystallized intelligence
draws upon past experiences and learning
106
Triarchic Theory of intelligence
divides intelligence into 3 categories
1. analytical
2. practical
3. creative
107
Analytical intelligence
the ability to reason logically through a problem and to find solutions
108
Practical Intelligence
the ability to find solutions to real world problems that are encountered in everyday life
109
Creative intelligence
The ability to create new ideas and generate novel solutions to those problems
110
Multiple intelligences
a model claiming that there are 8 different forms of intelligence each independent from one another
111
Learning style
the form of intelligence that is most dominant for one person
112
List Howard Gardner's Proposed forms of intelligence
1. verbal
2. logical
3. visuospatial
4. Bodily
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Self
8. Naturalist
9. Existential
113
Developmental Psychology
the study of human physical, cognitive, social and behavioural characteristics across the lifespan
114
cross sectional design
used to measure and compare samples of people at different ages at any given point in time
115
longitudinal design
follows the development of the same set of individuals through time
116
cohort effects
differences between people that result from being born in different time periods
117
sensitive periods
a window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability
118
zygote
the initial cell formed when the nuclei of an egg and sperm fuse
119
germinal stage
spans from conception to 2 weeks
120
embryonic stage
spans two weeks through eight
121
fetal stage
spans 8 weeks to birth
122
during the fetal stage________ become more developed and specialized
skeletal, organ and nervous systems
123
teratogens
substances such as drugs or environmental toxins that impair the process of development
124
fetal alcohol syndrome
involves abnormalities in mental functioning, growth and facial development in offspring of women who consumed alcohol during pregnancy
125
preterm infants
babies born earlier than 36 weeks
126
reflexes
involuntary muscular reactions to a specific type of stimulus
127
rooting reflex
stimulation to the corners of the mouth causing infants to make sucking motions
128
moro reflex
occurs when infants lose support to their head causing them to reach outward then inward in a hugging motion
129
grasping reflex
babies grab things
130
synaptogenesis
the forming of new synaptic connections
131
synaptic pruning
the lose of weak nerve cell connections
132
Cognitive development
the study of changes in memory, thought, reasoning, processes that occur throughout the lifespan
133
assimilation
a conservative process whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already possess
134
accommodation
a creative process whereby people modify their belief structure based on experiences
135
sensorimotor stage
from birth to two years
| infants thinking about and exploration of the world is based on sensory and motor experiences
136
object permanence
the ability to understand that objects exist even if they cannot be seen
137
preoperational stage
from 2-7 years
| language development using symbols, pretend play, and mastering the concept of conservation
138
conservation
the knowledge that the quantity of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of that object
139
concrete operational stage
7-11 years
| children develop logical thinking and manipulating numbers
140
formal operational stage
11-adulthood
| involves the development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking
141
core knowledge hypothesis
proposes that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment
142
habituation
a decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event
143
dishabituation
an increase in responsiveness with the presence of a new stimulus
144
zone of proximal development
development is ideal that when children attempt skills and activities beyond their abilities but have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress
145
scaffolding
a highly attentive approach teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner's needs
146
attachment
the enduring emotional bond between individuals
147
strange stimulation
a way of measuring infant attachment by observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety and comfort
148
self awareness
the ability to recognize one's individuality
149
egocentric
describes an individual who only consider their own perspective
150
theory of mind
the ability to recognize the thoughts and beliefs and expectations of others and to understand that these can be different from one's own
151
attachment behavioural system,
focused on meeting our own needs for security
152
caregiving behavioural system
focused on meeting the needs of others
153
introjection
the internalization of the conditioned regard of significant others
154
inductive discipline
involves explaining the consequences of a child's actions on other people, activating empathy for other's feelings
