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KP290 > Midterm #2 > Flashcards

Midterm #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the reasons for citing sources?

A

intellectual honesty
- acknowledge others work

intellectual history
- find out how people build on each others knowledge

intellectual debate
- invite readers into ongoing dialogue of ideas

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2
Q

What are the practical reasons for citing sources?

A

show you’ve done some homework

show you understand the issues in your area and how others have approached it

lead an interested reader to the source

see how people respond to each others thinking and findings

find out who has made this point in existing literature

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3
Q

What are the 2 views of plagiarism.

A

descriptive
- an academic convention

prescriptive
- a university policy

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4
Q

What are some things plagiarism includes?

A

using someone else’s exact words

using someone else’s ideas

using rearranged words

using your own work from another course or study

incorrect citing

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5
Q

What is the only thing you don’t cite?

A

your own ideas in your own words

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6
Q

What are some possible penalties for plagiarizing?

A

reduced grade on assignment

reduced grade in course

being added to the central registry

suspension

expulsion

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7
Q

What are some reasons not to use quotations?

A

can take over and let other people speak instead of you

only show you can transfer data

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8
Q

What are some reasons to use quotations?

A

show recognition of key or controversial points and recognizes it worthy of being credited

defend accuracy of paper

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9
Q

What is an in-text citation?

A

author and year of publication included within the text

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10
Q

What is a reference?

A

complete set of information about one source that was used in the text

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11
Q

What are references?

A

a list of all your references

based on your in-text citations

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12
Q

How do you cite multiple authors?

A

1st time - list up to 5

1st citation per paragraph after - author et. al (year)

2nd or later citation within a paragraph - author et. al

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13
Q

How do you cite several studies for one point?

A

works listed alphabetically by surname, with year

ex. (Aaron, 1999; Baby, 2008; Smith 1989)

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14
Q

How do you cite a journal source?

A

Author, A.A. (year). Title of article. Title Of Journal, volume number, pages.

NOTES:

  • only first word of title is capitalized
  • each letter of journal article is capitalized
  • title of journal and volume number is italicized/underlined
  • second and subsequent lines indented
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15
Q

How do you cite a book source?

A

Author, A.A. (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

NOTES:
- title of work italicized/underlined

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16
Q

How do you cite an electronic source?

A

Author, A.A. (year, month day). Title of work. Retrieved from https://www…..

NOTES:

  • no comma between month day
  • no italics
  • author can be person or organization
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17
Q

How do you organize a reference list?

A

alphabetical by first author’s surname

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18
Q

What are the 2 major research design types?

A

quantitative

  • data is numbers
  • people are subjects
  • ex. experiments, control trials

qualitative

  • data is words
  • people are participants
  • ex. field research, case studies
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19
Q

What are the 3 characteristics of experimental research design?

A

independent variable that is manipulated

control of all other variables

observation of the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable

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20
Q

What makes an experiment so much different from other research types?

A

control over variables, subjects, groups

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21
Q

What is the goal of experimental research?

A

trying to determine if there is a relationship between 2 + variables

arrives at a causal explanation

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22
Q

What are the advantages of experimental design?

A

convenience
replication
adjustment of variables
establishment of cause and effect

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23
Q

What are the 3 criteria for determining a cause and effect?

A

cause must precede effect

cause and effect must be correlated with each other

correlation between cause and effect can’t be explained by another variable

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24
Q

What are some disadvantages of experimental design?

A

cost
inability to generalize results
securing cooperation
can be complicated

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25
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

the variable that is manipulated and is thought to influence another variable

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26
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

the variable that is measured by the researcher

cannot be manipulated

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27
Q

What are control/situational variables?

A

variables that the researcher may not be able to manipulate/exclude/remove/alter

preferred way to overcome this is to hold the variable constant

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28
Q

What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?

A

experimental
- receives treatment

control
- does not receive treatment

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29
Q

What is between subjects design?

A

each subject is tested under only one level of independent variable

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30
Q

What is between groups design?

A

groups of subjects tested under only one level of independent variable

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31
Q

What are the advantages of “between” experimental designs?

A

no chance that one treatment can contaminate another since everyone only receives one

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32
Q

What are the disadvantages of “between” experimental designs?

A

concern of possibility that the subjects/groups are different enough to influence effects of treatment

attempt to avoid this using randomization

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33
Q

What is the within subjects design?

A

each subject tested under multiple levels of independent variable

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34
Q

What is the within groups design?

A

each group is tested under multiple levels of independent variable

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35
Q

What are the advantages of “within” experimental design?

A

each subject compared to themselves so differences observed not due to differences between subjects

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36
Q

What are the disadvantages of “within” experimental desgin?

A

carry over effects

  • testing subjects in one condition has an effect on their testing in another condition
  • overcome by counterbalancing
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37
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

systematically varying the order of the conditions to distribute the effects of time (ex. fatigue, practice)

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38
Q

What is a random sample?

A

a sample from a population selected in an unbiased way

each person has an equal chance of being selected

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39
Q

What is random assignment?

A

subjects assigned to conditions in an unbiased fashion

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40
Q

What is random groups design?

A

subjects randomly assigned to conditions in the between subjects/groups design

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41
Q

What is the matching process?

A

treatment/experimental subject is matched with a control subject based on a common matching item

ex. age, gender, height, IQ

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42
Q

What are matched groups design?

A

subjects are matched based on some variable assumed to be correlated with the dependent variable and then randomly assigned to either treatment or control

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43
Q

What are some cautions of matched groups design?

A

are the characteristics you match on relevant?

can you really get exact matches?

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44
Q

What is blind assignment?

A

subject doesn’t know if they are in the treatment or control group

researcher does know

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45
Q

What is double-blind assignment?

A

neither the researcher or the subject knows if they are in treatment or control group

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46
Q

What is pre-experimental design?

A

lacks random assignment

uses shortcuts weaker than classic experimental design (ex. no control group)

used when a researcher can’t use all the parts of classic design

weaker validity

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47
Q

What does a classic/true experimental design have?

A

random assignment
control group
experimental group
pre-test and post-test for each group

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48
Q

What are some design types of classic experimental?

A

pretest-posttest design
- measurements taken both before and after treatment

post-test only control group design

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49
Q

What is quasi-experimental design?

A

stronger than pre-experimental

variations on classic design

when researcher has limited control over independent variables

some will have more than 2 groups, or randomization but no pre-test

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50
Q

What are randomized control trials (RCT)?

A

for medical and pharmaceutical investigation

best type of evidence on which to base decisions and establish guidelines

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51
Q

What are the types of randomized control trial?

A

parallel group trial

  • only 1 set of patients receive new frug
  • compare between 2 groups

crossover trial

  • all participants receive new drug
  • participants randomized into intervention or control group
  • after certain period control group (placebo) becomes intervention group (drug) and vice versa
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52
Q

What is a sample?

A

subset of population

n

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53
Q

What does it mean if a sample is representative?

A

displays variations among its members that are proportional to the variations that exist in the actual population of interest

if this doesn’t exist, sample is BIASED

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54
Q

What is variability?

A

how much the sample varies when compared to the population from which it is selected

will always be some degree

if large degree, you will want a larger sample size

if little degree, small group size will be sufficient

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55
Q

What is probability sampling?

A

used primarily by quantitative researchers

RANDOM is key to sampling

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56
Q

Why is it important for a sample to be random?

A

most likely to yield a sample that truly represents population

lets researcher calculate relationship between sample and population

lacks predictability

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57
Q

What is sampling error?

A

how much a sample deviates from being representative of the population

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58
Q

What are the elements of probability sampling?

A 
sampling element
target population
sampling ratio
sampling frame
parameter
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59
Q

What is a sampling element?

A

unit of analysis in a population
what will you study?
ex. people, animals objects

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60
Q

What is a target population?

A

specific pool of cases to be studied, represents certain segment of population
who will you study?
ex. people with 6 toes, cats without whiskers?

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61
Q

What is a sampling ratio?

A

ratio of size of sample to the size of target population

can be expressed as a decimal value or a % (sample:population)

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62
Q

What is a sampling frame?

A

list of cases in a population
where the researcher will attempt to draw the sample from
ex. tax records, telephone directories, voters lists

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63
Q

What is a potential issue with sampling frames?

A

could cause inaccurate representations

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64
Q

What is a parameter?

A

characteristic of an entire population that is estimated from the sample

quantifiable characteristic/feature of a population

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65
Q

What is a measurement?

A

a repeatable, objective procedure for generating a measure

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66
Q

What is a scale of measurement?

A

the set of possible numbers that may be obtained by the measurement

67
Q

What are the characteristics of a scale of measurement?

A

magnitude
equal intervals
absolute zero

68
Q

What does it mean for a scale to have magnitude?

A

one aspect being measured can be judged as being greater than, less than, or equal to another aspect

ex. an 8 is greater than a 5 on a 1-10 pain scale

69
Q

What does it mean for a scale to have equal intervals?

A

the unit of measurement on the scale is the same regardless of where on the scale the units are

ex. difference between 2 and 3 inches is the same as difference between 9 and 10 inches

70
Q

What is absolute zero on a scale?

A

value that indicates nothing at all is being measured

ex. 0 inches on a measuring tape is no height whatsoever

71
Q

What is a continuous variable?

A

has an infinite number of values or attributes that flow along a continuum
values can be divided into many smaller increments

ex. income, age, temperature

72
Q

What is a discrete variable?

A

have a finite number of values
limited number of distinct, separate categories

ex. gender, religion

73
Q

What are levels of measurement?

A

suggests some measures are higher or more refined, some are crude and less precise

74
Q

What are the levels of measurement?

A

nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio

75
Q

What is the nominal level of measurement?

A

lowest, least precise
identifies difference in type among categories, not ranked

ex. racial heritage: African, Asian, Caucasian

76
Q

What is the ordinal level of measurement?

A

identifies ranked difference among categories

ex. grades - A, B, C, D

77
Q

What is the interval level of measurement?

A

identifies ranked differences among categories and measures the distance between categories, but has no absolute zero

ex. temperature - 0, 85, -3

78
Q

What is the ratio level of measurement?

A

highest, most precise
identifies ranked differences among categories, measures the differences between categories, and has an absolute zero

ex. age, income

absolute zero allows for statements of ratio

79
Q

What LOMs do discrete variables tend to be?

A

nominal and ordinal

80
Q

What LOMs do continuous variables tend to be?

A

interval and ratio

81
Q

How can LOMs be converted?

A

can always be converted into a lower level LOM, but not the other way around

ex. ratio can be turned into interval, ordinal, or nominal

82
Q

What is internal validity?

A

ability of experimenters to strengthen the causal explanation by eliminating potential explanations for an association between the independent variable and dependent variable

83
Q

What are the threats to internal validity?

A

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selection bias
history
maturation
testing
instrumentation
experimental mortality
statistical regression
diffusion of treatment (contamination)
compensatory behaviour
experimenter expectancy
sequence effects
84
Q

What is selection bias threat?

A

groups in an experiment are not equivalent at the start of the experiment with regard to the dependent variable

ex. in a study of heart burn and hot peppers, need to exclude subjects with a history of heartburn

85
Q

What is history threat?

A

an event or situation that occurs and affects the dependent variable during an experiment

unplanned and uncontrollable, more likely in long experiments

ex. H1N1, Hurricane Katrina

86
Q

What is maturation threat?

A

natural processes of growth, boredom, etc. that occur during an experiment and affect the dependent variable

ex. study where subjects must write multiple tests a day

87
Q

What is testing threat?

A

process of measuring itself in pre-test affects dependent variable

ex. nervous, stage fright

88
Q

What is instrumentation threat?

A

changes in characteristics of measurement instruments over time

89
Q

What is experimental mortality threat?

A

subjects failing to participate through entire experiment

problematic if many withdraw, or many withdraw from a certain group

90
Q

What is statistical regression threat?

A

tendency for subjects at extreme ends of spectrum to regress towards the middle

91
Q

What is diffusion of treatment threat?

A

treatment “spills over” from experimental group to control group, then control group modifies their behaviour as they learn of treatment

92
Q

What is compensatory behaviour threat?

A

subjects in control group modify their behaviour to make up for not getting the treatment

93
Q

What is experimenter expectancy threat?

A

experimenter directly or indirectly makes subjects aware of hypothesis or desired results

94
Q

What is sequence effects threat?

A

seen in within subjects design

response or performance in a later condition is a result of subject’s role in a previous condition

ex. writing a midterm after failing one

95
Q

How can you control threats to internal validity?

A 
randomization
placebos
blind setups
reactive effects of testing (eliminate pretest)
instrumentation
experimental mortality
96
Q

What is external validity?

A

the ability to generalize the findings beyond the study

97
Q

What are some threats to external validity?

A

Lucky Patrick Enjoys Evening Rides Having Delicious Peanuts

location of experiment
population validity
ecological validity
experimental realism
reactivity
Hawthorne effect
demand characteristics
placebo effect
98
Q

What is location of experiment threat?

A

laboratory experiment
- specialized settings or laboratory

field experiment
- natural setting

dictatces applicability

99
Q

What is population validity threat?

A

whether the behaviours of subjects in the sample can be generalized to the target population

100
Q

What is ecological validity threat?

A

refers to the question of whether the research findings can be generalized to all of the environmental contexts of interest

101
Q

What is experimental realism threat?

A

experiment made to feel so realistic that experimental events have a real impact on subjects

an issue when design is weak and events have no impact

102
Q

What is reactivity threat?

A

arises because subjects are aware they are in an experiment and may react differently

103
Q

What is Hawthorne effect threat?

A

subjects respond to the fact that they’re in a study more than they did to the treatment

104
Q

What is demand characteristics threat?

A

type of reactivity where subjects pick up clues about the hypothesis and alter their behaviour accordingly

105
Q

What is the placebo effect threat?

A

when subjects who received placebo respond to things as if they have received treatment

106
Q

How can you control threats to external validity?

A

selecting from a larger population

ensure setting captures essence of the real world

107
Q

What is measurement validity?

A

how well an indicator measurement and the conceptual definition of the construct the indicator is measuring match up

ex. you wouldn’t measure temperature using a weigh scale

108
Q

What is reliability?

A

aka dependability or consistency

when the same things are repeated or reoccur under very similar circumstance, the outcome should be identical or very similar

109
Q

What is stability-reliability?

A

measures reliability across time

yields consistent results

110
Q

What is representative reliability?

A

yields consistent results for various social groups

111
Q

What is equivalence?

A

reliability across indicators

measure that yields consistent results using different specific indicators, assuming all indicators measure the same construct

112
Q

How can reliability be improved?

A

clearly conceptualize all concepts
increase level of measurement (include refined categories)
do “drafts” of the measurements before implementing
use multiple indicators of a variable

113
Q

What is probability?

A

odds that a certain event will occur

114
Q

What is probability in research?

A

how confident the researcher is that the outcome was due to intervention not chance

115
Q

What are the main probability values?

A

alpha values (p)

p < .05 - confident
p < .01 - very confident
p < .001 - extremely confident

116
Q

When do you accept the null hypothesis?

A

if there is no effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

117
Q

What happens if you accept the null hypothesis when it is false?

A

Type 2 error

aka false negative

118
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis?

A

if there is an effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

119
Q

What happens if you accept the alternative hypothesis when it is false?

A

Type 1 error

aka false positive

120
Q

Why do type 1 errors happen?

A

subjects with extreme scores affect data

121
Q

What are the consequences of type 1 errors?

A

lead to change in clinical practice

findings may try to be replicated but fail because there was actually no results in the first place

lead others to develop theories based on false info

122
Q

Why do type 2 errors happen?

A

treatment effect may have been too small to have noticeable effect
sample may have been extreme in some way

123
Q

What are the consequences of type 2 errors?

A

experiment may be abandoned when it actually has potential

124
Q

What is the worse type of error?

A

type 1 - accepting the alternative hypothesis when it is false (rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true)

125
Q

What is statistics?

A

study of methods for describing and interpreting quantitative information

126
Q

What is population?

A

total collection of people/things/events of interest

N

127
Q

What are the symbols used to describe population data?

A

greek letters
parameter = characteristic of a population

mean = μ
standard deviation = σ
variance = σ²

128
Q

What are the symbols used to describe sample data?

A

english letters
statistic = characteristic of sample

mean = m or x̅
standard deviation = s
variance = s²

129
Q

What are parametric statistical tests?

A

interval or ratio data

assumes data is normally distributed

130
Q

What are non-parametric statistical tests?

A

data counted (nominal scale) or ranked (ordinal scale)

don’t require normally distributed populations

131
Q

What is a normal distribution curve?

A

aka density curve

symmetrical, single peaked, bell shaped

shape of curve is described by the mean and standard deviation

mean is located at the centre, will be the same as the median

the larger the standard deviation, more spread out the curve

132
Q

What is the 68-95-99 rule?

A

68% of observations fall between the mean and one standard deviation (35.13% on each side)

95% of observations fall between the mean and two standard deviations (47.5% on each side)

99.7% of observations fall between the mean and three standard deviations (49.8% on each side)

133
Q

Why don’t standard deviations add up to 100%?

A

0.3% remaining is equal to 0.15% on each end to represent extreme scores

134
Q

What is skewness?

A

whether the data is skewed left or right

135
Q

What is kurtosis?

A

“sharpness” of curve

how many scores are clustered around a point

136
Q

What are the 2 key characteristics of score distribution?

A

central tendency
- value of a typical score

variability
- extent to which scores differ from one another

137
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency?

A

mean
median
mode

138
Q

What is mean?

A

average
most common measure of central tendency
add all scores and divide by # of scores
sensitive to extreme scores

139
Q

What is median?

A

measure of position, score that lies in the middle
not sensitive to extreme scores, may be more realistic measure of central tendency

step 1: organize data lowest to highest
step 2: determine if there is an even or odd # of points
step 3: odd lists - choose number directly in middle
even lists - calculate mean between 2 middle points

140
Q

What is mode?

A

most frequently occurring score

141
Q

What are the measures of variability?

A

range
variance
standard deviation

142
Q

What is range?

A

difference between highest and lowest scores

not generally used because it only includes extreme scores

143
Q

What is a scatter plot?

A

when you plot your observations in an X/Y axis format, gives a scatter plot

shows direction, form, and strength of relation between variables

144
Q

What is the significance of a linear relationship?

A

strongest relationships have scatter plot points closest to the line

145
Q

What are outliers?

A

extreme scores

make it difficult to fit a straight line

146
Q

What is correlation?

A

r

measures strength and direction of relationship between 2 variables

ranges from -1.00 to +1.00

closer the value to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationship

147
Q

What does a correlation of -1.00 indicate?

A

inverse relationship

every unit of increase in one variable is one unit of decrease in the other

148
Q

What does a correlation of 0.00 indicate?

A

there is no relationship between variables

149
Q

What does a correlation of +1.00 indicate?

A

positive relationship

every unit of increase in one variable is one unit of increase in the other

150
Q

What are the steps used to determine correlation?

A

list all the scores for X
sum all the scores for X
square each of the scores for X
sum all of the squared scores for X

repeat steps for Y values

multiply each score for X by each corresponding score for Y

insert all values into formula

151
Q

What are the correlation relationship statuses?

A
  1. 00 - perfect relationship
  2. 70-0.99 - strong relationship
  3. 40-0.69 - moderate relationship
  4. 01-0.39 - weak relationship
  5. 00 - no relationship
152
Q

What are the 2 types of validity that are not internal or external?

A

logical
quality of researchers arguments, application, interpretation of data

construct
whether measures used test what they are intended to test

153
Q

What is a wash out period?

A

time between testing sessions to wipe effects of previous condition

154
Q

What is stratified random sampling?

A

when the population is divided based on a characteristic before random sampling takes place

155
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

using lists or inventories of units to identify ever Nth participant

156
Q

What is convenience sampling?

A

drawing from a group of people that are familiar/convenient

157
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

identifying units that represent a characteristic of interest

158
Q

What are the types of purposive sampling?

A

snowball
- identify one person with characteristic of interest, have theme connect with others in own network

quota
- identifying a certain number/representation needed for the study and then sampling up to that

expert
- identifying people with known expertise in an area of interest

159
Q

What are the types of skewness?

A 
negatively skewed (to the right)
positively skewed (to the left)
normal (bell curve)
160
Q

What are the types of kurtosis?

A

platykurtic (flat)
mesokurtic (normal)
leptokurtic (pointy)

161
Q

What is modality? What are the types?

A

number of peaks a graph has (number of modes)

unimodal, bimodal, trimodal

162
Q

What are the independent and dependent variable called in correlation studies?

A

i - predictor

d - criterion

163
Q

What are the 2 types of correlation coefficients?

A

Pearson product moment correlation coefficient
- interval or ratio data

Spearman Rank correlation coefficient
ordinal

KP290 (4 decks)

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